<title>Environmentally sound technologies for women in agriculture</title>
<section>Acknowledgements</section>
The many partners and participants listed below provided generous financial and technical support to the workshop. Their valuable contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
Dr. Julian Gonsalves, Executive Vice-President for Program, IIRR, for the concept
Dr. C. Prasad, Secretary General, IF WA, for strong support and involvement
Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, Chairman, IFWA, for support for this activity
Dr. B. N. Chaudhary, Member Project Advisory Committee, for help in accounting
Funding agencies
International Development Research Centre (IDRC), New Delhi
Mr. Ravi Maithel
Principal Program
Officer, IDRC
New Delhi
Citibank
UNESCO
All members of the Central Advisory Committee
Dr. (Ms.) Ruth Alsop, Programme Officer, Sustainable Agriculture, Ford Foundation, New Delhi
Dr. (Mrs.) Rekha Bhagat, Senior Scientist, Division of Agriculture Extension, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi
Mrs. Anjali Capila, Senior Lecturer, Department of Community Resource Management and Extension, Lady Irwin College, New Delhi
Mrs. Neelam Chhabra, Editor - English, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. B. N. Chaudhary, Assistant Director General (Lab to Land Programme), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. Julian F. Gonsalves, Executive VicePresident for Program, IIRR
Dr. M. Y. Kamal, Assistant Director General (Inland Fisheries), ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. (Mrs.) Kamala Kumar, Director, Department of Science and Technology, Technology Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. P. N. Mathur, Joint Director (Extension), Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
Dr. A. C. Mathur, Ex-Assistant Director General (Animal Science), ICAR, New Delhi
Dr. (Mrs.) Minnie Mathew, World Food Programme, New Delhi
Dr. C. Prasad, Secretary-General, IFWA and Ex-Deputy Director General (Extension),
Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. R. D. Sharma, Director, Publications and Information, ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan
Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. K. N. Singh, Assistant Director General, National Agricultural Research Project,
ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi
Dr. Vijaylakshmi, Managing Director, Canadian Cooperative Association, New Delhi
All members of Regional Advisory Committee
Arid and semi-arid region (Udaipur)
Dr. Ajit Gupta, Zonal Coordinator Transfer of Technology (TOT), ICAR, CAZRI, Jodhpur
Dr. (Mrs.) Pushpa Gupta, Dean, College of Home Science, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Udaipur
Dr. H. C. Sharda, Chief Training Organizer, Vidya Bhawan, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Badgaon, Udaipur
Plains (Indore)
Dr. P. Das, Ex-Zonal Coordinator (TOT), ICAR, JNKVV, Jabalpur
Dr. W. R. Deshpande, Ex-Joint Director (Re search and Extension), JNKVV, Indore
All participants in Regional Advisory Committee meetings
All workshop participants (See page 205-207 for full addresses.)
Artists
Ms. Indrani Biswas
Mr. Ric Cantada
Mr. Neeraj Kochar
Editors
Mr. David Abbass
Mr. Scott Killough
Dr. Paul Mundy
Mr. Jaime Ronquillo
All manuscript contributors (See page 208-209 for full addresses.)
IFWA staff
Ms. Shilpi Gupta
Ms. Abhilasha Mathur
Ms. Puja Wadhwa
Desktop publishing staff in the
Philippines
Ms. Mamet Magno
Ms. Jel Montoya
Ms. Angie Poblete
Staff of the Environment, Natural Resources and Agriculture Division, IIRR
Farm women, extension workers and scientists who have assisted in the development of these materials
<section>Preface</section>
Women are critical to the well-being of farm households. Aside from raising children, women are expected to prepare all meals, maintain the homestead, and assist in crop and animal production, all the while tending to the general health of their families. Perhaps, ironically, it is because women have so many responsibilities that they have been over-looked by agriculturalists and policy makers-it has been more convenient to label men as farmers and women as child raisers and cooks. In truth, women are involved in all aspects of agriculture, from crop selection to land preparation, to seed selection, planting, weeding, pest control, harvesting, crop storage, handling, marketing, and processing. Whatever the reason for this neglect, the importance of developing farming technologies relevant to women has only recently been recognized.
In 1992, the International Federation for Women in Agriculture (IFWA), New Delhi, and the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), Silang, Cavite, Philippines, agreed jointly to develop simple, science-based resource materials which could be used by female and male extension workers. The result is a manual of 60 simple environmentally sound technologies which will help reduce drudgery and increase efficiency while helping to maintain a clean and healthy environment.
The manual was produced using a modified version of an approach developed by IIRR to prepare information and training materials quickly and efficiently. Topics were solicited from author experts all over India. They represent national institutes such es the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal; the Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay; Haryana Agricultural University; Delhi University, and several other agencies. A number of manuscripts were also contributed by respected NGOs. Still others were gleaned from published works. The raw manuscripts were presented, critiqued, and revised in a sixday editorial and illustration workshop in New Delhi in June 1995. The revised manuscripts were taken to IIRR's headquarters in the Philippines where they were edited, laid out, and scrutinized again by IPWA and IIRR specialists. The camera-ready product was then sent to India for printing.
The topics have been edited and laid out with care to make them interesting and easy to understand. Illustrations have been used wherever possible to explain technologies. While it was written for extension agents, it is hoped that even neo-literates will be able to make good use of this manual.
A complete list of participants, contributors, and contributing agencies is given at the back of this manual.
<section>Animal husbandry and dairying</section>
<section>Selection and breeding of cattle buffaloes</section>
Animal management in rural areas is generally the job of farm women. Their opinion. therefore is important when selecting and breeding livestock. When you select an animal for purchase, consider the following points.
General health
The animal is in good health if:
- it is taking its feed and water well with normal rumination.
- it passes normal dune and urine.
- its eyes are bright, it appears alert, and its muzzle is moist.
- its skin is smooth, its coat glistens, and the animal twitches its skin and swings its tail around to drive off lies..
- the animal walks normally with no signs of lameness.
Age
Count the animal's teeth to determine its age.
Teeth
Approximate age
8 milk teeth
birth to 2 years
1st pair of permanent teeth
2-3 years
2nd pair of permanent teeth
3-4 years
3rd pair of permanent teeth
4-5 years
4th pair of permanent teeth
5 or more years
Testing
If you are considering purchasing a milch cow, milk the animal two consecutive times in order to determine its daily milk production.
Milch animals
For milch animals, look for the following:
- Udder should be large and well developed with a prominent milk vein leading from the udder to the abdomen.
- Four teats, well separated, without cracks or blockages.
- Normal milk flow from all four teats.
- Hind legs should be parallel and spaced well apart, allowing enough room for the udder.
- Angular body, high and wide in the back and sloping slightly downward to the neck.
- Deep chest, well supported.
Reproduction
Here are some questions which will help you choose a good animal.
- How many times has it calved? Preferably, buy an animal which has calved once or twice. Buy freshly calved animals.
- Is it pregnant? If the animal is pregnant, try to determine the stage of its pregnancy.
- What was the time gap between previous carvings? Avoid animals which have aborted.
- How often does it come into heat? Cows (cattle and buffaloes) should come into estrus 45-60 days after calving. A cow should come into heat regularly, every 3 weeks, until conception.
When to breed
If you notice signs of estrus in the morning, mate the animal (or have it artificially inseminated) in the afternoon. If signs of estrus are noticed in the evening, mate the animal early the next morning, 10-12 hours after the onset of estrus.
Have a veterinarian examine your animal 2-3 months after breeding to make certain that the animal is pregnant.
Signs of estrus
- Bellowing Animal becomes restless
- Animal's vagina becomes swollen and discharges mucus Animal mounts other animals
- Animal stands still when mounted
- Frequent urination
<section>Selection and breeding of goats and sheep</section>
When selecting a goat or sheep for purchase, consider the following points:
General health
The animal should:
- take its feed and water regularly and display normal rumination.
- have normal skin and coat, bright eyes, alert ears, and moist muzzle.
- pass well-formed, normal dung, and normal urine.
Age
Always select young animals. Count their teeth to estimate their age.
Number of teeth
Sheep
Goats
8 milk teeth
birth to 1 year
birth to 1 year
1st pair permanent teeth
1 year to 1 year and 9 months
1 year and 2 months to 3 years
2nd pair permanent teeth
1 year and 9 months to 2 years and 6 months
3 to 4 years
3rd pair permanent teeth
2 years and 6 months to 3 years
4 to 5 years
4th pair permanent teeth
3 years and above
5 years and above
For milch goats For milking goats, look for:
- a well-developed udder with two teats, without defects or disease.
- an angular body, sloping slightly downward from the hind section to the neck.
- hind legs well-apart, allowing ample space for the udder.
Reproduction
Some goats and sheep give birth twice a year, some once a year, and others three times in 2 years. Animals which give birth three times in 2 years are preferred. Choose animals which:
- have high twinning rates (produce twins).
- produce a lot of milk, for quick growth of offspring.
Offspring
Sell kids and lambs at between 3 and 6 months of age. Keep the best animals for replacement stock.
Breeding
Mate your animal 14-20 hours after the onset of estrus. Your breeding ram (male sheep) or buck (male goat) should be strong and healthy with a muscular physique, typical of its breed. Look for good loins, strong quarters, and well-developed testes. One male can serve 30-50 females.
Heat detection
A ewe in estrus will:
- bleat (cry loudly).
- wag its tail frequently.
- stand still when mounted.
- try to join the ram.
<section>Selection and breeding of swine</section>
Consider the following points when purchasing a pig:
- Look for sows (female) and boars (male) which are good examples of their breed. In particular, check their length and width.
- Make sure the animal has a good appetite for feed and water.
- The animal should be active, have bright eyes, and alert ears.
- Select a sow with 10-14 well-spaced, functional teats.
- Select sows which farrow (give birth) twice a year, with litters of 8-10 healthy piglets.
- Select sows with a breeding history of producing healthy litters of fast-growing piglets. Ask how many of the sow's piglets in a litter have died.
Breeding
Normally, a sow will exhibit the following signs of estrus 12 months after farrowing.
- Sow is mounted by young boars (but she will move away if not in full heat).
- Sow in full heat will mount other sows.
- Sow becomes restless.
- Sow's vagina becomes swollen and discharges sticky mucus.
- Sow stands still when mounted by other animals.
Mate your sow with a healthy boar 12-30 hours after the onset of estrus. Breed again every 12 hours for 1 1/2 - 2 1/2 days.
<section>Community pasture management</section>
Inadequate feed is a major constraint to livestock productivity. Little scope remains for putting more good lands into fodder production. One solution lies in improving the sustainable production levels of community pasture lands through better management. Women are often responsible for collecting fodder and raising livestock, especially dairy cattle. Improving pastureland can reduce the amount of time women spend collecting fodder and feeding livestock.
Management practices
It is possible to increase the productivity of community pastures through one or a combination of the following practices.
Rehabilitation and management
Rehabilitate pasture land with improved grass varieties and legumes for higher yield, higher nutritive value, and palatability. Grasses can be transplanted or grown from seed. Legume seeds are sown between grass lures. Multipurpose trees can also be planted to provide fodder, fuel, and timber. (See the glossary for a list of improved grasses and legumes.)
Protect pasture from overgrazing. Consider erecting a stone wall, making a trench and mound barrier, or planting a live hedge.
Adopt proper soil and water conservation measures to improve site quality. Field lands can be ploughed and developed across the slope to retain water and prevent soil from being washed away.
Surplus fodder during monsoon can be conserved in the form of hay or silage for use during lean periods. (See Make hay to preserve fodder and Make silage to preserve green fodder.)
Encourage stall feeding-feed livestock in their sheds without letting them out for grazing.
Management of grazing land
Regulated grazing is useful in locations where the regeneration capacity of perennial grasses is fast and prolific.
- Fencing. Use live hedges, stone walls, bamboo poles, and wire fencing to help regulate the movement of livestock.
- Bush cleaning. Remove thorny and unwanted bushes to improve forage production.
- Burning. Burn during the summa to destroy weed seeds and dried and cut bushes. Burning also promotes growth of grasses.
- Herbicides. Particularly heavy weed growth can be controlled with herbicides during early monsoon. Follow safety and application instructions carefully. Herbicides can be dangerous to humans and livestock.
- Fertilizer. Application of 40-80 kg urea per ha (20-40 kg nitrogen/ha) during the monsoon can increase forage yield by 30 to 70 percent.
- Grazing. Do not graze a pasture in the first year after fencing in order to allow perennial grasses to regenerate and produce seeds. Resume grazing in the second or third year, depending on the amount of regrowth. To prevent overgrazing, graze just one or two head of cattle (or 6-10 sheep or goats) per hectare. Or practice deferred rotational grazing: shift your animals from place to place, allowing each grazing site enough time to regenerate before returning.
Deferred rotational grazing
This grazing pattern uses three areas of pasture (A, B. and C in the diagram).
From July to October in the first year, graze the animals in pasture A. At the beginning of November, move them to pasture B. and graze them there until the end of February. From March to June, graze them in pasture C.
In July of the second year, instead of moving them to pasture A, put them back into pasture B. In November, move the animals to pasture C, and in March, return them to pasture A.
This deferred rotational grazing system allows each of the pastures to recover for more than a year.
Establishing improved varieties
Highly deteriorated pastures must be re-established. This involves ploughing and land-levelling, followed by sowing of improved varieties of grasses and legumes. Such pastures will give high forage yields for 5-6 years.
Improving germination. Legume seeds have hard seed coats. To improve germination, put seeds in boiling water for 60-90 seconds or soak them in acid (20-30 percent sulphuric acid) for 4-5 minutes.
Seed treatment. Legumes are able to take nitrogen out of the air. This is done in nodules on legume roots. To increase the growth of these nitrogen-fixing nodules, after soaking and just prior to planting, mix legume seeds with rhizobium culture powder.
To help grass seeds grow, make pellets out of a mixture of 3 handfuls of clay, 1 handful of seeds, 1 handful of sand, and I handful of farmyard manure.
Sowing. Seeds can be broadcast or sown in lines. For best results, sow alternate lines of grasses and legumes. Or, try planting alternate strips, each 1-2 m wide, of grasses and legumes.
Fertilizer application. 50-60 kg nitrogen/ha and 20-30 kg phosphorus/ha can be applied to the pasture during monsoon. Applying fertilizer increases forage yield of mixed pastures by 50-100 percent. The protein content of the forage is also increased.
Management of cutting. During the year of establishment, just one harvest is advised. In subsequent years, forage can be harvested every 50 or 60 days. Cut the forage 10-15 cm above ground level.
Conservation of surplus fodder. Surplus fodder can be conserved as hay or silage. Hay is made by drying harvested fodder under the sun. Silage is made by allowing harvested and chaffed material to ferment under anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) in pits.
Grazing. Graze animals according to a schedule which regulates the number of animals and where they graze. This is done to prevent overgrazing and to make good use of pasture growth.
Establishing pasture by rooted slips
Some grasses do not produce seeds. For these, rooted slips must be used (sprouts which grow from roots of some grasses during the monsoon). Transplantation of nursery-raised grass seedlings can also be very effective in establishing pasture.
Contributor Dr. Punjab Singh
<section>Cattle feeding</section>
Questions most often asked by farm women about feeding cattle
- What proportion of straw, green fodder, and concentrates should I feed my cattle?
- What can be done when green fodder is not available in the fields?
- Can green fodder be preserved for use in the lean months?
- Is there a way to make straw more nutritious?
- Are there less expensive substitutes for concentrates?
In the following pages, you will find answers to these important questions.
Generally, cattle are fed with dry straw mixed with some green fodder. Milch animals and draught bullocks need more nutrition; therefore, give them an additional ration of concentrates.
Green fodder
Green fodder is not only nutritious but also palatable and easily digestible. It is available in the form of green forages, such as berseem, lucerne, oats, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, cluster bean, cowpeas, grasses, and lappings of trees. Leguminous fodder crops, like berseem, lucerne, cowpea, and cluster bean, are more nutritious than non-legumes, such as oats, maize, and sorghum. Therefore, for better feed, mix legume fodder with nonlegume fodders. Do not feed animals only with legumes as this can cause bloat.
Cattle should be given about 30-3 5 kg of mixed green fodder daily. This should be chopped to avoid wastage.
Dry fodder
Dry fodder is available in the form of straw and stover. Though less nutritious, these are needed to meet the bulk or dry-matter requirement of cattle. Mix green fodder together with the dry fodder. Feed 3-4 kg of dry chaffed fodder daily. (See Improve dry fodder by adding urea. )
Concentrates
Oil cakes, rice and wheat bran, cereal grains, seeds, molasses, etc., make good concentrate mixtures. Concentrate is economically prepared by mixing cakes, wheat or rice bran, and grains or pulses in equal proportion There is not much advantage in adding expensive items, like cotton seeds, to the mixture.
Concentrates containing proteins and minerals are the most nutritious part of cattle feeds. Concentrates are especially important for growing calves, first carvers, pregnant and milch animals, and working bullocks.
On average, 1 kg of concentrate mixture is given daily to first carvers, especially cross-bred cattle. Pregnant cows should be provided with 1 to 1.5 kg of concentrate mixture every day during the last 60 days of pregnancy.
Important tips
- Chaff the green and dry fodder to avow wastage.
- Treat dry fodder with urea to increase its nutritive value. This will help reduce the quantity of concentrate required in the feed. (See improve dry fodder by adding urea.)
- When green fodder is scarce, supplement the diet with an increased quantity of concentrate mixture.
- You can reduce expenditure on concentrate mixtures by supplementing with ureamolasses liquid mixture. See Ureamolasses liquid mixture.)
- Mineral mixture and common salt should be fed at the rate of approximately 30 9 per animal per day, if not otherwise supplemented in the feed.
- Store concentrates under dry conditions. High moisture content encourages mould growth.
- Reject all feed which has developed mould or fungus. This could lead to poisoning.
- Make sufficient clean drinking water available to your cattle. Contaminated water will result in diarrhoea and other disorders.
Mineral mixture
Mineral mixture contains major and trace minerals. Feed 30-35 g of good mineral mixture to milch cattle, 20-25 g to heifers and dry animals per day.
Common salt can be provided in the concentrate mixture at the rate of 20-25 g per day, or separately in the form of a rock-salt lick
Water
Cattle need 30-40 litres of water daily. Clean water should be available to your cattle at all times. If this is not possible, offer water to your cattle at least three times a day. Allow them to drink as much as they want
Balanced feed Requirements for green fodder, dry fodder, concentrates, and minerals depend on:
- Size and age of the animal
- Growth stage and pregnancy status
- Climatic conditions
- Milk yield
- Nature and amount of work
Balanced feed for cattle Cattle feed generally consists of the following:
- Green fodder
- Dry fodder
- Concentrate mixture
- Mineral mixture
- Water
A good feed is palatable, nutritious, balanced, easily digestible, non-toxic, and economical.
A balanced feed is one which provides different components of feed in proper proportion to meet the needs of each animal- calves, milch cattle, dry-cattle, draught cattle, etc. More feed might be required in extreme hot or cold weather. As such, a balanced feed is different for different animals under different conditions.
Economical feeding
Cattle feed should also be economical. Feeding green fodder is more economical than providing concentrate mixture. You can reduce expenditure on feed by substituting green fodder for concentrate mixture.
A cow yielding up to 8 litres of milk need not be given concentrate mixture if it is fed 40-45 kg of mixed green fodder (such as oats + berseem, cluster bean + sorghum, or cowpeas + maize), 3-4 kg of dry fodder, and mineral mixture each day.
Higher yielding animals will require additional concentrate, perhaps 1 kg of concentrate mixture a day for each additional 3 litres of cow milk or 2. 5 litres of buffalo milk.
Feeding during lean months
Provide good quality dry fodder during lean months when green fodder is not available. The amount of concentrate fed should also be increased to make up for the lack of green fodder. As such, 9 kg of wheat straw mixed with 4 kg of concentrate mixture can be given to a cow yielding 10 litres of milk during the lean months. (See Make silage to preserve green fodder and Make hay to preserve fodder.)
Do not forget to add mineral mixture and common salt to the feed in all seasons.
Contributors: Dr. Ram Chand, Ms. Parvinder Sharma, and Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Make hay to preserve fodder</section>
Handle with care
Be gentle when raking ~ moving dry fodder. Rough handling will shake off nutrition legume leaves.
Green fodder is especially scarce during the summer and early winter. Try preserving surplus green fodder as hay for these times of scarcity.
What is hay?
Hay is any forage crop cut before it is mature and dried for storage. It is more nutritious and palatable than straw because hay preserves the entire plant.
Crops suitable for hay
All fodder crops (including most grass species) can be used to make hay, but clovers and oats are especially suited.
How to make hay
Harvest berseem and lucerne just before flowering. They are most nutritious at this stage. Cereal fodder crops, such as oats and sorghum, should be harvested at flowering stage. Young sorghum plants before flowering stage can be poisonous to livestock.
- Use the last few cuttings of berseem, lucerne, and oats. (The first cuttings are best fed as fresh fodder.)
- Leave the material in the field to dry in the sun. Rake it frequently for uniform drying. In case the field is to be used immediately, move the material to a suitable place to dry. Try drying it on a fence.
- Overdrying will result in loss of nutrients, such as Vitamin A. On the other hand, underdrying will result in growth of fungus during storage. Ideally, the moisture content should be reduced to 15 percent. To tell if fodder is dry enough to make hay, rub the material between your hands. The material should not feel wet. Hay should retain its green color.
- After drying, the material should be collected and stored under shade in dry conditions.
Contributor: Dr. Jagadish Singh
<section>Make silage to preserve green fodder</section>
One method at preserving green fodder is to turn it into silage.
What is silage?
Silage is preserved green fodder that contains moisture. It is made in an airtight structure called a silo. Well-made silage is greenish yellow in colour, and has a pleasant vinegar-sweet smell.
Crops suitable for silage
Cereal fodder crops, such as oats, maize, and sorghum, are most suitable for making silage because their high carbohydrate content results in good fermentation.
Method of preparing silage
- Construct a concrete or brick silo above the ground, or a pit silo. The latter is more economical and easy to handle for a small farm family.
- Select a piece of land at a higher level to prevent stagnation of rainwater.
- Harvest cereal fodder crops, such as sorghum, maize, and oats, at the flowering to milk stage.
- Legumes should be harvested just at flowering stage.
- Chaff the green fodder.
- Spread the chaffed material evenly in layers in the silo and pack thoroughly to remove all air.
- In the case of legume-only fodders, mix straw with the green fodder to reduce the moisture content.
- Fill the chaffed fodder 0.7 to 1 m above the soil surface.
- Cover the silo pit with polythene sheet. Spread a 5 cm layer of earth over it, and finally, plaster it with mud to make the structure airtight.
Silage is ready for feeding after 30-45 days.
Silage is nutritious and palatable. About 25 kg of silage is equivalent to 3 5 kg of green fodder. It can be used as cattle feed during the dry lean months.
Contributor: Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Improve dry fodder by adding urea</section>
When green fodder is unavailable, farm women are forced to feed their cattle poor-quality dry fodder, such as wheat and paddy straw, local grasses, and dry stalks of maize, sorghum pearl millet, and sugarcane tops.
Increasing the cattle's concentrate ration to make up for this shortfall is costly. There is a low-cost alternative. You can improve the quality of dry fodder by treating it with urea, a common fertilizer. Urea treatment is easy.
Materials required (for every 100 kg of dry fodder)
Urea
1.5 kg
Common salt
500.0 g
Mineral mixture
500.0 g
Vitablend
20.0 g
Water
10.0 litres
Method of treatment
Dissolve urea, common salt, mineral mixture, and Vitablend thoroughly in water by stirring it with a wooden stirrer.
Spread the dry fodder evenly under the sun in a 5 m x 10 m area.
Spray half the quantity of urea solution on the dry fodder, using a sprayer or garden watering can.
After about 30 minutes, turn the dry fodder upside down, and apply the remaining quantity of urea solution. The treated fodder can be fed immediately after it dries. If stored in a sealed plastic container, the material will ferment. Fermented fodder is more palatable. Use within 2-3 weeks.
Contributor: Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Urea-molasses liquid mixture</section>
Nutritious concentrates account for a large part of feed costs for ruminants. Depending on the cost of molasses, this expenditure can be reduced by replacing concentrates with a nutritive ureamolasses liquid mixture.
Materials
Urea
2 kg
Sugarcane molasses
100 litres
Water
2 litres
Mineral mixture
2 kg
Common salt
1 kg
Vitamin A supplement
20 g
(if green fodder is not available)
Method of preparation
1 Take 2 litres of drinking water in a pot.
2 Dissolve 2 kg of urea thoroughly in the water by stirring it with a wooden stirrer.
3 Put 100 litres of sugarcane molasses in a trough of galvanized iron sheet or some other metal.
4 Mix the urea solution slowly in the molasses, stirring it continuously.
5 Make a mixture of 2 kg of powdered mineral mixture and 1 kg of powdered common salt.
6 Mix the mineral mixture and salt in the urea-molasses mixture.
7 Mix in 20 g of vitamin A supplement. 8 Heat the mixture to boiling point. Continue stirring during heating to avoid charring and to facilitate uniform mixture 9 Allow it to cool.
Schedule of feeding
Introduce the urea-molasses mixture gradually over 2-3 weeks.
During the initial three days, give 500 g of the urea-molasses mixture daily; reduce the quantity of concentrate mixture by 25 percent.
During the next four days, offer 1-2 kg of the urea-molasses mixture; cut the concentrate to half the original amount, and reduce roughage by 25 percent.
In the second week, give 2-3 kg of the urea-molasses mixture daily and withdraw the concentrate mixture completely (for adult non-working animals as a maintenance diet). Roughage can also be reduced by 75 percent of the original amount.
From the third week onwards, you can increase the ureamolasses mixture to as much as l kg per 100 kg of animal body weight.
What animals can be fed ureamolasses liquid mixture?
Cattle and buffaloes over six months of age, and sheep and goats over four months of ace can be fed urea-molasses liquid mixture. Avoid feeding it to young calves, as their stomachs are still developing.
How much to feed
Growing calves (older than 6 months)
Green fodder, mixed straw, and 300 g of concentrate mixture.
In addition, 1-2 kg of the urea-molasses mixture for free-choice consumption.
Dry buffaloes and cows
Feed dry buffaloes and cows urea-molasses (5-6 kg) and dry fodder (5-6 kg) daily.
In addition, give green fodder at the rate of l to 2 kg or vitamin
A supplement in the diet.
Milch animals (producing about 10 litres of milk)
Feed green fodder (25-30 kg and straw mixed with 1-2 kg of concentrate mixture.
In addition, provide urea-molasses mixture for free-choice consumption.
Working bullocks
Feed dry fodder (5-6 kg) and urea-molasses mixture (5-6 kg) daily.
In addition, feed green fodder at the rate of 1-5 kg and concentrate mixture at the rate of 1-3 kg, depending on whether the work is light, medium, or heavy.
When not to feed ureamolasses liquid diet
Discontinue the urea-molasses mixture if the animal salivates excessively or appears sick, or is unusually slow to move.
Contributor: Dr. M. Y. Khan
<section>Urea-molasses-mineral lick</section>
Composition
Molasses
Urea
Salt
Mineral mixture
Bentonite
Groundnut cake
Cottonseed cake
Calcium oxide
Groundnut cake and cotton seed meal can be replaced with cheaper, locally avail able cakes and meals.
Ruminant animals, such as cattle, goats, and sheep, are able to convert nitrogen and fibrous feeds into protein and energy. Actually, the job of producing this protein and energy is done by bacteria which live in the rumen-one of the three stomachs of ruminant animals-in a process called microbial fermentation. Fibrous crop residues alone, a major feed for ruminant animals, are actually a very poor source of nitrogen, energy, and minerals. A urea-molasses-mineral (UMM) lick is an effective way to supplement nitrogen (necessary for making protein) and other essential nutrients lacking in fibrous feeds.
Advantages
- UMM licks contain all the nutrients essential for growth and production.
- Adult cattle and buffalo can be maintained by licking 300500 g of UMM lick and consuming whatever crop residues are available.
- For growing animals, 20-30 percent of concentrate can be replaced with UMM lick.
- UMM licks are good for underfed, growing animals. The licks provide all essential nutrients and minerals, especially those required by rumen microbes for fermentation of fibrous material.
- In low-producing and underfed lactating animals, UMM supplementation can increase milk production by 30-SO percent depending on the production level.
- The essential minerals provided from UMM licks help in reproductive development, reducing the age to first calving.
Preparation
With a little instruction, UMM licks can be prepared by farmers, on-farm, without special equipment. See the amounts of ingredients in the box above labelled "Composition".
Safe
UMM licks are safe. The chance of urea toxicity is virtually eliminated.
Note
Do not leave the UMM lick exposed to the rain.
1 Pour molasses into a tub.
2 Mix the urea and common salt with a wooden stick on a sheet of plastic or a clean floor.
3 Stir the urea and salt mixture into the molasses.
4 Mix, one after the other, on a plastic sheet or on a clean floor, the mineral mixture, calcium oxide, bentonite, pow dered groundnut cake, and powdered cotton seed cake.
5 Slowly and thoroughly stir this powdered mixture into the tub with the molasses, urea, and salt.
6 Pour this semisolid mixture into a wooden, cardboard, or metal mould lined with polythene.
7 The lick will set in about 24 hours.
Cost
UMM licks can be made on-farm for between Rs 3.20 and 3.85 per kg, depending on the filler ingredients. One kilo is enough for 2-3 days for one animal. The cost can be reduced by using cheaper, locally available filler ingredients. All ingredients are readily available in the market.
Contributor: Dr. G. P. Singh
<section>Clean milk production</section>
Most farm families like to keep milch cattle. However, keeping milch cattle Is one thing, and producing clean milk is quite another. Women are often responsible for milking cows and storing and handling the milk.
Why clean' milk?
Milk and milk products are good for the health of every member of the family- young and old. But milk should be clean. Unclean milk causes iliness and poor health. Also, milk is a perishable commodity. Unclean milk gets spoiled quickly; it fetches a low price in the market, or may be unsalable.
What is clean milk?
Milk is clean when it does not contain any harmful bacteria and/or foreign matter, such as dust, cow dung, hair, flies, etc.
A number of things are required to produce clean milk These include clean environment and premises, clean containers, clean and healthy animals, clean milking habits, and finally, clean and healthy milkers
Clean environment and premises
- The cow shed should be well-lit and ventilated. The floor should be made of smooth concrete or brick and should have a drain. Smooth ceilings and walls help keep the shed clean
- Clean and disinfect the floor and the drains with water, using 2 percent phenyl after milking.
- Periodically, whitewash the ceilings and walls. Keep them free from cobwebs, dust, and dirt.
- Avoid feeding the animal fodder, straw, etc., immediately before milking as these can raise dust. Concentrates prepared beforehand can be given.
Clean vessels
Use only clean utensils for collecting milk. Dirty utensils are the main source of harmful bacteria in milk.
Clean all milk utensils promptly after use. Do not keep them unattended for long.
Clean the utensils with warm water using an alkali washing powder (such as sodium hypochlorite) and a stiff brush. When ash is used, rinse the utensils thoroughly. Avoid using clay to clean utensils. Dry utensils thoroughly after washing by stacking them upside down, preferably in direct sun for three hours.
Use clean water for washing milk utensils.
Milk containers
- Use a narrow-mouthed pail for milking. An open-top pail allows easy access to dirt, cow dung, etc., in the milk.
- Use a seamless pail, if possible, or the seams of the pail should be smooth and easily washable.
Clean animals
- Before milking, wipe the animal's udder, flanks, and tail with a clean, damp cloth.
- Clean the udder and teats with lukewarm water. Add potassium permanganate to the water (one pinch in a bucket of water).
- Wipe the udder and the teats dry with a clean rough cloth after washing.
- Preferably, keep the tail of the animal tied to its hind legs during milking, to keep it from flicking dirt into the milk.
Healthy animals
- Ensure that the milch animal is healthy and free from diseases communicable to people. Tuberculosis and other diseases can spread through milk.
- Examine the animal's udder every day for cracks. Treat these with an antiseptic ointment. Swelling of the udder, or pus or blood in the milk are signs of mastitis. If you see these signs, call a veterinarian.
Clean milking
Wash your hands and arms with soap thoroughly before milking.
Trim your fingernails short.
Cover your head to prevent your hair from falling in the milk.
Wear clean clothes.
Your hands should be dry when you milk the animal. The udder and teats should also be dry, as moisture on teats can lead to cracks. Wipe the teats dry after every milking.
Milk the animal using the full-hand method. The thumb should not be pressed inward; the thumb knuckle should not press against the teat.
Healthy milkers
- The person milking the animal should be healthy. Diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and scarlet fever can be carried from infected persons into the milk.
Clean milk storage
- Aluminum or stainless steel cans with tight lids are good for storing and transporting milk. When tin or chrome-plated iron cans are used, see that there are no rust spots.
- Cover the milk with a cloth to keep out dust and flies.
- Don't keep the milk in direct sunlight as the taste of the milk changes and some vitamins are destroyed.
- To keep milk cool, place milk cans in a tub containing cold water.
- Don't mix fresh milk with old milk.
- Empty milk vessels should be washed and cleaned immediately.
Clean milk production will help you avoid unnecessary financial losses through spoilage of milk. It will also guard the members of your family against diseases carried in unclean milk.
Contributors: Mrs. Ritu Chakravarty, Dr. Ram Chant, Mr. B. S. Mittra, Mrs. Parvinder Sharma, and Dr. Jaddish Singh
<section>Livestock diseases</section>
Women are often responsible for taking care of farm animals. They are, therefore, most likely to notice any disease symptoms. Take care to look for the following problems.
Anthrax
Symptoms
- High fever
- Difficulty in breathing
- Bleeding from ears, mouth, nose, anus, and vagina
- Blood does not clot
- Trembling and convulsive movements
- Animal collapses and dies quickly
Animals susceptible
Cattle, buffaloes, horses, pigs, camels, dogs, and humans.
Source of infection
Soil contaminated with bacillus anthraces spores or fodder grown on infected soil, contaminated drinking water, excrete, blood.
Prevention and control
- Improve hygiene.
- Do not open the carcass for post mortem, if anthrax is suspected.
- Burn or bury the infected carcass immediately, together with bedding and contaminated soil.
- Bury the animal 2 m deep. Cover with quicklime on all sides and the top.
- Never drag an anthrax carcass along the road Use a cart or ambulance which should later be thoroughly disinfected.
- Annual vaccination with Anthrax Spore Vaccine is a must for all animals in endemic areas.
Black quarter
(Blackleg)
Symptoms
- Fever
- Lameness
- Swollen muscles in affected area-bubbles can be felt under the skin in the swollen area
Animals susceptible
Cattle. buffaloes
Source of infection Soil contaminated with infected faeces or decomposed carcasses, contaminated foodstuffs, water, and open wounds.
Prevention and control
Vaccinate all animals every year before the monsoon season. swollen muscles
Brucellosis
(Contagious abortion)
Symptoms
- Abortion or retained placenta
- Cloven-hoofed animals
Animals susceptible
Cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and pigs
Source of infection
Aborted foetus, foetal membrane, vaginal discharge. Milk and faeces of infected animals contain the disease organisms which contaminate the environment, feed, water, and grazing ground.
Prevention and control
- Identify and isolate affected animals.
- Dispose of aborted foetus, placental and uterine discharges, contaminated litter, and soil by burning or burying after covering with quicklime.
- Vaccinate 3-6-month-old calves.
- Make sure that fresh stock is free from the disease.
Foot-and-mouth disease
Symptoms
- Blister-like sores and ulcers on udder, teats, feet, and inside the mouth, nose, and muzzle
- Excessive salivation
- Fever
- Lack of appetite
- Refusal to eat
The disease usually lasts about a week but can last longer. It is often fatal to young animals.
Animals susceptible
Cloven-hoofed animals: cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and pigs
Source of infection
Virus of the disease remains alive in dried saliva and can contaminate the feed. Infected animals spread enormous amounts of virus from their mouths and noses into the air. The disease can also spread through contaminated water, hay, and pastures.
Prevention and control
- Dispose of contaminated feed and dung in a compost pit.
- Isolate affected animals.
- Bury dead animals in a pit 2 m deep after covering the carcass with quicklime.
- Get first vaccination done at the age of 6-8 weeks, followed by a booster dose 4-6 weeks later. Repeat the vaccination as advised by a veterinarian.
Haemorrhagic septicemia
(Galahotu)
Symptoms
- Fever
- Discharge from the nose
- Cough
- Lack of activity
- Lack of appetite
- Bloat
- Swelling of the neck
- Laboured breathing
- Tongue sticks out (in last stage of disease)
Animals susceptible
All animals in low lying areas during periods of high humidity.
Source of infection
The disease organism multiplies rapidly in lungs, and infected droplets are exhaled in the air. Disease is spread either by droplet inhalation or by ingestion. Sick animals also contaminate the atmosphere and grass by excreting a large number of bacteria from the nose or mouth or in the faeces. Environmental stress, starvation, chilling, or change in diet can bring on the disease.
Prevention and control
- In endemic areas, carry out preventive vaccination every year, one month before the onset of rains.
- Vaccinate promptly if there is an outbreak of haemorrhagic septicemia in your area.
- Segregate healthy animals from sick animals and from others that have come into contact with the sick animals.
Rables
Symptoms
- Animal becomes aggressive
- Bellowing
- Frequent urination
- Salivation
- Constipation
- Animal becomes vicious-runs at and tries to bite anything that moves
- Convulsions
- Death
Animals affected
All domestic animals: cattle, buffaloes, horses, mules and camels, hilt is most common in dogs and cats. Can also infect humans.
Source of infection
Dogs and cats are the main source of infection. Foxes act as carriers and are the most important reservoirs of the disease. The disease is communicated from animal to animal and to people chiefly by bites from rabid animals. The virus is excreted in saliva. Infection can also occur when handling infected animals. The virus can enter through scratches or wounds. Infection can also occur through licking by dogs and cats. Saliva of rabid animals infects pastures, utensils, and housing. Infected saliva remains virulent for many days. The virus can survive in water for 20-30 days. Contaminated water can transmit the disease to healthy animals.
Prevention and control
- Keep animals away from rabid dogs and cats.
- Promptly wash wounds of bitten animals with water. Allow the wounds to bleed for some time. This helps to wash out the virus.
- Apply tincture of iodine on the wounds.
- If a dog or cat bites your livestock, keep both the livestock and the dog or cat confined and under observation for 10 days. If rabies symptoms are observed, have the livestock vaccinated.
Rinderpest
Symptoms
- Very high fever
- Discharge from the nose
- Foul-smelling, shooting diarrhoea which contains blood and mucus
- Difficulty in breathing
- Watery eyes
- Dehydration
- Lesions on mouth and tongue
- Animal cannot eat
Animals susceptible
Cattle and buffaloes.
Source of infection
The virus is found in saliva, discharge from eyes and nostrils, and in urine and faeces. It contaminates pastures and grasslands, and spreads by ingestion of contaminated feed and water.
Prevention and control
- Isolate infected animals.
- All adult cattle and calves older than 3 months should be vaccinated.
- Revaccinate exotic and cross-bred animals every 3 years.
- Plug all natural openings of the carcass of dead animals with cotton to prevent spilling infected blood and discharge.
Tuberculosis (TB)
Symptoms
- Low, recurrent fever
- Weakness
- Lack of appetite
- Progressive loss of weight despite good nutrition and care
- Enlarged superficial lymph nodes. You can feel them as swellings behind the ears and in front of the shoulders
Animals susceptible
All species
Source of infection
Contaminated environment, contact with infected animals, food contaminated with infected discharge, faeces, urine or milk. In damp, contaminated environments, such as watering troughs, stagnant ponds and accumulated manure, the bacteria survive for many months.
Prevention and control
- Have a tuberculin test done. (Consult a veterinarian.)
- Clean and disinfect troughs for feed and water.
- Isolate infected mothers and their calves from the herd immediately at birth.
Contributors: Dr. Ram Chand, Dr. A. C. Mathur, and Dr. S. K. Verma
<section>Common maladies in cattle</section>
The most important factor adversely affecting animal production and reproduction is disease. This leads to economic losses and setbacks. Timely recognition and prevention of disease is, therefore, necessary. For this, a greater knowledge of different types of diseases is required. Many animal diseases are environmentally induced. Here are some of the important environmentally induced diseases, and how to recognize and prevent them.
Diseases caused by unfavourable weather
Heat stroke
This happens when the external temperature is very high (over 40° C), and animals are kept outside either working or grazing. It can also be caused by overcrowding in badly ventilated shelters. This is especially true for poultry. Asbestos sheet and tin roofs tend to get overheated in very hot weather.
Symptoms
Initially, animals pant and search for water; their body temperature goes up very high; then they have trouble breathing, stop urinating, collapse, and in severe cases, die.
Prevention
Do not allow animals to work or graze during the day in summer when it is very hot. Work and graze animals during early mornings or late evenings. Allow animals access to plenty of water, salt, and shade. Avoid overcrowding of animals in shelters. Design animal houses so ventilation is adequate in hot weather. Insulate roofs with straw or other agricultural residue to prevent overheating. Allow buffaloes to wallow.
Treatment
When the animal's temperature goes very high, cool the animal with packs made by soaking strips of cloth in cold water. Give the animal plenty of fluids to drink, such as tamarind juice, sugar cane juice and coconut water. Or, make oral rehydration drink by mixing 4-5 teaspoons of sugar and l/4 teaspoon of salt in each litre of water. Move the animal to comfortable surroundings with plenty of shade and ventilation.
Treat heat stroke by cooling the animal.
Make oral rehydration drink of sugar, salt, sad water.
Coughs and colds
Extremely cold weather or a combination of cold and wet weather can lead to various disease conditions, the simplest of which are coughs and colds. This lowers the resistance of animals and makes them susceptible to more serious conditions such as haemorrhagic septicemia and ephemeral fever (or threeday sickness).
Symptoms
Shivering, discharge from nose and eyes, coughing, possibly accompanied by high fever. The animals huddle together, and are very slow to move.
Prevention
Avoid exposing animals to cold wind and rain. Provide adequate and comfortable animal houses, and dry bedding in wet and cold weather.
Treatment
Make surroundings comfortable. Rub wet animals dry. Rub chest with turpentine liniment, camphorated oil, or eucalyptus oil. Give animals nourishing, warm food-like gruel made of wheat, finger millet, or pearl millet flour with lots of brown sugar. If animals do not show signs of improvement in 12 hours, seek professional help.
Diseases caused by unhygienic surroundings
Unclean surroundings with dirt, spoiling and rotting garbage, polluted water sources, and overcrowding can lead to many disease conditions. Most of these conditions are infectious, i.e., they can spread rapidly from one animal to another and cause many animals to be sick at the same time. Some common examples:
- Unclean milking habits lead to mastitis.
- Unclean wounds, cuts, and sores can lead to tetanus, black leg, and even anthrax.
- Unclean food can lead to flukes and worms in the digestive tract, as well as many other digestive problems, such as diarrhoea and vomiting.
- Unhygienic surroundings also make conditions favourable for the breeding of ticks and mites. These external parasites transmit many diseases, such as filariasis, babesiosis, and anaplasmosis which infect the blood and can eventually lead to death of the animal.
Prevention
- Animal houses must be kept clean. They must be cleared of dung and urine twice a day and washed well at least once a day. Dung and urine transmit many diseases. Efficient and quick utilization of dung and urine prevents germs, worms, and other organisms from infecting other animals.
Similarly, discharges from animals like nasal discharge, placenta and vaginal discharges can carry infection. These should be washed out of animal houses and buried. Bedding and straw on which sick animals sit can spread infection. These should be burned so they cannot contaminate the food supply of other animals.
Animal houses should be regularly inspected for ticks, lice, and fleas. These parasites usually lay eggs in corners, nooks, and crevices. It is a good practice to fumigate animal houses with neem or tobacco leaves once in two or four weeks, depending on the severity of infection. Remove animals from the shelter when fumigating.
Mosquitoes and flies breed in stagnant pools of water or accumulated garbage heaps. Avoid unnecessary accumulation of water and garbage; make a soak pit for water and a manure heap for organic waste.
Humans often carry infection from one animal to another. Always wash your hands after attending to animals which are sick. It is also a good practice to wash your hands after milking one cow, before milking the next.
In some areas, people and animals live in the same room. This can cause diseases to be transmitted from humans to animals and from animals to humans. As far as possible, keep rooms for animals and humans separate.
Unclean cuts, wounds, and sores can lead to very dangerous conditions, such as tetanus. When animals get hurt, wash the wound well and cover with a clean, dry cloth. Prevent flies from sitting on wounds by applying locally available fly repellents, such as neem oil or camphor.
Make sure all food and water fed to animals are clean. Food meant for animal consumption must be fresh and should not have fungus. As far as possible, ensure a clean source of drinking water for your animals. Many diseases are spread through unclean drinking water.
If animals go out to graze every day, deworm them regularly, at least twice a year. Calves up to the age of six months should be dewormed once a month. There are many commercial deworming preparations as well as many local remedies, including decoctions of neem leaves, areca nut powder, papaya seeds, and custard apple seeds. A decoction is prepared by soaking some of the dewormer in hot water.
If possible, isolate your sick animals from other animals in order to prevent the spread of disease.
<section>Protect your cattle from poisoning</section>
Poisoning
Causes Chemicals, such as arsenic, mercury, and salt
- Poisonous plants, such as lantana, young sorghum, and other plants in the flowering stages
- Pesticides and medicines used in fields
- Snake bites
Symptoms
The symptoms vary but poisoning can be suspected when:
- animals suddenly fall sick or die.
- animals show signs of illness abdominal pain groaning kicking at the abdomen diarrhoea constipation convulsions
Treatment
When poisoning is suspected:
- Drench animal with 1 litre of paraffin oil or vegetable oil.
- Drench animal with milk, water with powdered charcoal, or coconut water; or mix together 10-12 egg whites, 1/4 kg sugar and 1 litre water. Drench once a day for one or two days.
- Seek professional help immediately if you suspect poisoning.
Important
Cases of poisoning difficult and expensive to cure. It is better to prevent poisoning by being careful when using poisonous substances.
Poisons
Source
Symptoms
Emergency treatment
Arsenic
Rat poison, insecticidal dips end sprays mischievous poisoning.
Dark, blackish diarhoea, red mucous membrane, loss of hair, leathery skin.
None
Lead
By licking lead-painted objects Some insecticidal sprays also have lead.
Strong-smelling diarrhoea, bellowing, blindness.
Epsom salts, 100 9 in 50 ml wafer given as drench.
Nitrate
Insecticidal sprays, young plants grown in nitrate rich soils. Accidental ingestion of nitrate fertilizers.
Blue colouring inside the mouth and eyelids, rapid and laboured breathing.
Drench with milk with egg white.
Salt poisoning
Excessive consumption of salt. and dryness inside
Loss of appetite, hypersensitivity, redness slightly for smaller animals. mouth and eyelids.
Drench 500 ml oil, followed by 500 ml of water. Reduce
Selenium
Plants growing in selenium-rich soil.
Loss of hair from mane and tail, rough home, deformed hooves. Occurs over a period of time due to slow accumulation of selenium in the body.
No emergency treatment.
Sorghum, Sudan grass
Young immature plants. and eyelids might turn blue, death.
Convulsions, inside mouth feeding on the plants.
Drench. Stop animals from
Lantana
Shrubs and plants of lantana.
Skin becomes sensitive and red. Animal shuns light. Suffers diarrhoea or constipation.
Drench. Remove lantana from pasture.
Fungus
Food which is stale and mouldy.
Diarrhoea. Animals do poorly.
Drench. Remove stale and mouldy food.
Malathion and other term chemicals
(Grazing on recently sprayed fields, or accidental contamination of food and water.
Convulsions, twitching of muscles, loss of control over urination.
Seek professional help.
Snake bites
Symptoms
- Bitten animal might appear anxious.
- There may be a wound or swollen area and fang marks on the leg or face.
Emergency treatment
- Locate bite.
- Make a deep cut over the wound and allow wound to bleed freely.
<section>Adaptation of livestock</section>
Differences
- Graded murrah buttaloes need more green fodder and dry fodder than local buffalo breeds in order to perform to their potential.
- Compared to cattle, buffaloes are able to produce more milk grazing on low-quality dry fodder and crop residue.
- Goats can survive and produce on a diet of fodder trees and shrub leaves, a diet unsuitable for cattle.
Many environmental factors influence the health and productivity of domestic animals. If you know how animals react to different environmental conditions, you can select and breed animals that are suited to your location and have fewer health and production problems.
Nutrition
The quality and quantity of natural grasses vary from place to place, season to season. Different livestock species and breeds require different amounts and types of fodder for optimum production and health. Select the livestock types and adjust stocking numbers according to
- the quantity and quality of natural grasses, cultivated fodder, and residues available from your land.
- the quantity, quality, and productivity of fodder, fodder trees, and grasses available from common lands.
- your ability to purchase concentrates, fodder, and residues.
Access to water
Different species and breeds have different requirements for water:
- Goats, sheep, camels, and donkeys can survive on little water for long periods.
- Buffaloes need plenty of water for wallowing in order to keep cool (this also improves milk production).
- Lactating and working animals need more water.
Soil acidity
The acidity of soil affects how much nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus is available to the plants and thus indirectly to animals.
Neutral to alkaline soils (pH 6.5 - 7.5)
Plants assimilate large amounts of nitrogen, so are rich in protein. Large animals can be maintained on alkaline soils due to greater availability of protein, calcium, and phosphorus.
Water sources
Choose your species and breeds according to the availability of water through out the year from:
- Private borewells
- Open wells
- Hand pumps
- Public common property canals
- Ponds
- Tanks
- Water holes
- Streams
- Rivers
- Open wells
- Borewells
Acidic soils (pH less than 5.5)
Natural grasses are low in protein, calcium, and phosphorus, but high in crude fibre. Small animals are more suitable to acidic soils due to lower availability of protein, calcium, and phosphorus This leads to smaller muscles and bones.
Test the soil pH in your area and choose animals with body sizes suited to the availability of protein, calcium, and phosphorus in the natural herbage.
Temperature
Select animals which are adapted to the temperatures in your area.
- In hot areas, animals with short hair coats and thin skin, well-covered with sweat glands, are best suited.
- In cold, windy areas, animals with heavy coats for the cold season and smooth coats for the warmer periods are best suited.
For example, buffaloes have thicker hides than cattle and a lower density of sweat glands. Hence, they need to wallow in water in order to keep cool. They should not be grazed under the midday sun.
Terrain
Consider the following points:
- Large, heavy animals are at greater risk of injury when grazed on hilly terrain. Smaller-framed, nimble animals are useful here.
- Small bullocks can plough soils that are sandy and light. Heavy and larger animals are required to plough black cotton soil and clay or loam soils.
Ectoparasites
- Animals indigenous to an area often possess natural immunity to tick-borne and flea-borne diseases.
- In areas where insect-borne diseases are a particular problem, smooth-coated, short-haired animals, with large numbers of sweat glands and rich skin blood supplies, are preferred. These animals repel mosquitoes, flies, and ticks.
- Cross-bred, exotic cattle are more prone to tick-borne diseases, such as theileriosis and babesiosis.
Note
Many other factors should be considered when selecting and breeding animals, including land ownership, access to labour, access to capital, technical know-how and markets. You must also consider why you are raising the animal-for dung, meat, draught, milk, mixed purpose investment?
When selecting animals, consider:
Technical factors
- What health support facilities are available veterinarians, clinics, local animal healers, paraveterinarians?
Financial factors
- Can you afford animal health services, or would it be more economical to rear animals that are naturally diseaseresistant?
Endoparasites
- Internal parasites (worms, liver flukes, etc.) are a serious problem in some areas. While this is often a result of poor management, some indigenous breeds have developed resistance to endemic endoparasites.
Rainfall and humidity
Rainfall and humidity affect pasture production, groundwater availability and the population of ticks, mosquitoes, flies, and other insects and parasites in an area. They also influence the availability of minerals in the soil and the soil pH.
Contributors: Ms Sagari R. Ramdas and Ms. Nitya Ghotge
<section>Vegetables and post-harvest technologies</section>
<section>Nutrition garden</section>
Every family, even landless labourers, can grow nutritious vegetables. It is easy and very rewarding: you will save money, improve your diet, and avoid eating pesticide-tainted vegetables often sold in the market.
Types of home gardens
Large gardens (at least 500 sq m)
Almost all types of vegetables can be grown in a large garden, including one or two large fruit plants, such as papaya, guava, lemon, grape, or dwarf mango.
Medium-size gardens (150 to 200 sq m)
Choose from tomato, eggplant, fenugreek, chill), French bean, bitter gourd, cucumber, spinach, amaranth, radish, turnip, carrot, lettuce, cauliflower, cabbage, summer squash, okra, cowpea, or cluster bean.
Small gardens (less than 100 sq m)
Choose from amaranth, spinach, fenugreek, radish, turnip, tomato, eggplant, chill), lettuce, mint, or coriander.
Note
If frost threatens, irrigate frequently until the danger has passed.
Pest control
Pests can be a serious problem. Avoid costly damage by practicing the effective and safe techniques described in the section Integrate past management. Using these simple techniques, you can also avoid costly and dangerous pesticides. See also Neem for plant protection and list of Banned and nonapproved pesticides in the glossary.
Market-bought fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers, such as urea or ammonium sulphate, and phosphoric fertilizers, such as single superphosphate, and potassium fertilizers, such as murate of potash, are required for good vegetable and fruit crops. Single superphosphate and murate of potash should be mixed in the soil before sowing or planting. Nitrogenous fertilizers, such as urea, should be top-dressed once or twice in the standing crops.
Tools
A few tools can be very useful: spade, hand hoe, watering can, sickle, knife, basket, small hand sprayer, twine, and bamboo stakes.
Container gardens
Some vegetables grow well in pots or containers placed on sunny terraces, window ledges, balconies, verandahs, or on the roof. Fill containers with a mix of sand, soil, and manure.
Choose from chill), tomato, coriander, mint, amaranth, spinach, table radish, kulfa, lettuce, knol-khol, French bean, okra, fenugreek, cluster bean, green onion, garlic, leek, parsley, broccoli, and tomato.
Nutrition garden management
- Sow or transplant seedlings in rows or lines with proper spacing.
- Remove some seedlings if plants are crowded.
- If many seedlings die, plant more to take their place.
- Irrigate after transplanting.
- Remove weeds between the rows and between plants.
- Vegetables need regular watering for good growth and yield.
- On larger plots, irrigate lightly every third or fourth day during summer and once every one or two weeks in winter.
- Farm yard manure and compost are great fertilizers for vegetable gardens. Mix them in the soil about a week before sowing or transplanting. (See Vermi-composting and Organic farming)
- Apply a nitrogenous fertilizer, such as urea, in small quantities in standing crops for higher plant growth and yield. Apply urea only when the soil is moist; otherwise, give a light irrigation after application.
Garden layout
Important points for laying out and planning your nutrition garden:
- Your garden will need plenty of sunlight.
- Rectangular gardens are better than square gardens, but any shape will do.
- Avoid the shade of big trees.
- Locate near a water source if possible.
- Vegetables which lose their quality and freshness rapidly after harvest, such as spinach, amaranth, fenugreek, mint, and radish, should be given priority in the garden.
- Plant root crops along the ridges which separate plant beds.
- Climbing vegetables make good use of space. Train them up fences, walls, or grew them on terraces.
- Dig one or two compost pits in a shady, unused comer of your plot.
Nutritious vegetables
Vegetables supply vitamins, essential amino acids, carbohydrates, and proteins for good health. Dieticians say that adults require about 300 9 of vegetables: 125 9 of green leafy vegetables, 100 9 of roots and tubers, and 75 9 of some other vegetables. But most people eat less than these amounts. The following matches important nutrients with their vegetable sources: carbohydrates potato, sweet potato, colocasia, beetroot
Protein peas, carpet legume, French bean, cowpea, clusterbean, amaranth, broadbean
Vitamin Carrot (yellow type), spinach, turnip, amaranth, sweet potato (yellow-fleshed), pumpkin (yellowfleshed), cabbage, fenugreek, tomato, coriander, broccoli, parsley
Vitamin B peas, carpet legume, garlic, colocasia
Vitamin C- tomato, turnip, green chillies, cauliflower, knol-khol, bitter gourd, radish leaves, amaranth, Brussels-sprouts, parsley
Calcium beetroot, amaranth, fenugreek, turnip leaves, coriander, pumpkin, onion, tomato
Potassium-sweet potato, potato, bitter gourd, radish, carpet legume
Phosphorus garlic, peas, bitter gourd
Iron-bitter gourd, amaranth, fenugreek, mint, Indian spinach, spinach
Harvesting
- Vegetables harvested at the peak of their maturity and used promptly are always superior in nutrition, flavour, taste, and appearance.
- Harvest root vegetables while they are still tender-delay can make them pithy, tough, and unfit for consumption.
- Harvest all fruit and pod vegetables when they attain their proper size, while they are still tender.
- Melons, tomatoes, and ash gourd can be allowed to ripen on the vine.
- Clip leafy vegetables frequently at their most succulent and tender stage.
- Pumpkin, chill), colocasia tubes, and onion bulbs can be harvested as immature or mature produce.
Vegetable crops for different seasons
In northern parts of India, there are three distinct seasons for growing vegetables. The following lists the vegetables suited to each season.
Winter (October-February)
Potato, cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, broccoli, carrots, Brussels sprouts, kale, radish, turnip, carrot, beetroot, onion, garlic, leek, broad bean, lettuce, parsley, celery, peas, spinach, fenugreek, mustard, coriander, fennel.
Summer (March-June)
Okra, cowpea, cluster bean, tomato, eggplant, chill), capsicum, garden bean, pumpkin, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, luffa, cucumber, melons, amaranth, colocasia, asparagus.
Rainy season (July-October)
Okra, cowpea, clusterbean, chill), eggplant, tomato, capsicum, cucurbit vegetables (except melons), radish, tumip, carrots, sweet potato. colocasia.
<section>Preserving nutrients</section>
Many people destroy valuable nutrients when they cook their food. The following points will help you choose and prepare nutritious meals.
Eat food fiber
Dietary fiber, or roughage, aids in digestion. It is available in whole grains, fresh fruits, and vegetables. Whole wheat bread, bran cereals, crunchy raw carrots, and other root crops are especially valuable sources of fiber.
Eat unpolished rice
Eat unpolished rice. And remember, the water left after cooking your rice is very nutritious.
Eat plenty of salad
Salad improves your appetite and aids digestion.
Eat fresh seasonal fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables are very nutritious, and very tasty. Eat them in season and preserve them to have all year round.
Preserving nutrients
Follow these tips to reduce nutrient loss during cooking and processing:
- Eat the leaves of root vegetables, such as turnips, radish, beets, and knolkhol. Their leaves contain more nutrients than the root. Cook them with potatoes or a leafy vegetable.
- Cook vegetables in a pressure cooker. This saves time and retains more of the vitamins B and C.
- Salads, fruits, and vegetables should be washed first and then cut to prevent washing away water soluble vitamins B and C and minerals.
- Cook, preserve, or process cut fruits and vegetables immediately after cutting. Long soaking of cut fruits and vegetables washes away valuable nutrients.
- Select fresh and sound fruits and vegetables for cooking.
- Avoid deep-frying.
- Cook leafy vegetables on a low flame. Carrots and pumpkin can be cooked on a high flame.
Preservation of vegetables and fruits
1 Select raw vegetables, such as cauliflower, ginger, lotus stem, carrot, radish, and raw mango slices.
2 Peel, cut, and wash the raw material.
3 Place the prepared material in glass jars.
4 Prepare a chemical solution in preboiled tap water using 3 percent salt, 0.8 percent glacial acetic acid, and 0.2 percent potassium metabisulphite.
5 Pour the chemical solution into the glass jars containing the fruit and vegetables. Fill to the brim. (There should be about 1 1/2 as much solution as fruit and vegetable mix.)
6 Close the jars tightly and store them in a cool and dry place.
7 Wash the vegetables and fruit thoroughly before cooking. For pickles, pakora, and chutney, the preserved mix can be used immediately after straining.
Preservation of whole tomato pulp
1 Select fully ripe, red, and undamaged tomatoes.
2 Wash them and cut them into pieces. Remove any green portions.
3 Boil them in a stainless steel or aluminium vessel and crush the pieces with a ladle or in a blender.
4 Boil on mild heat until the weight of the whole mass is reduced to one third, i.e., into a thick paste.
5 Towards the end of the cooking, add a teaspoon (5 ml) of glacial acetic acid for every kg of the paste and boil for 5-8 minutes.
6 For every kg of finished product, add 0.4 g potassium metabisulphite and 0.2 g sodium benzoate dissolved in a small amount of water. Mix thoroughly.
7 Fill the hot crushed tomato pulp in clean dry glass jars up to the brim. Seal the jars tightly and store in a cool, dry place.
Lactic fermentation of vegetables
1 Select good cabbage heads and carrot roots.
2 Remove outer leaves of the cabbage and cut them into narrow shreds. Peel carrots, wash, and shred. Mix cabbage and carrot shreds in the ratio of 1:1.
3 To the mixed vegetables, add 2.5 percent salt and 1.5 percent mustard powder (rai).
4 Shake the whole mass daily for up to two weeks.
5 The fermented product is ready to eat.
Contributor: Dr. Vijay Sethi
Preservation
Consider preserving your fruits and vegetables so you can enjoy them in the off season. They can be bottled, pickled, turned into chutneys, preserved as pulp or juice, fermented, or dried in the sun. There are various preservation techniques using sugar, salt, spices, chemical preservatives, or organic acids. Consult your local government nutritionist or look for someone in your community who can teach you food preservation techniques.
<section>Preservation by fermentation</section>
Do you grow vegetables? If so, try this simple, low-cost preservation technique. By preserving vegetables in the peak season, you can enjoy nutritious vegetables all year round.
Fermentation
Fermentation is a great way to preserve several types of vegetables together at one time. One of the vegetables in the mix should be cabbage. Cabbage contains substances which help in fermentation. When cabbage is not available, radish or cucumber will serve the purpose.
Procedure
1 Select any type of vegetable except potato, sweet potato, or other vegetables which are rich in carbohydrates. Wash the vegetables thoroughly in clean water, and wipe them dry with a clean, rough cloth.
2 Shred the vegetables, preferably with a stainless steel knife or shredder.
3 Cabbage (or radish or cucumber) should comprise at least half the total weight of the vegetable mix.
4 Add 22 g (4-5 tsp) of common salt per kg of shredded vegetables and mix it thoroughly. Allow it to stand for an hour or two.
5 Put the mixture in a glass or plastic container, such as a bucket. The size of the container depends on your requirement. If you are using a wood or earthen container, coat the inside with wax.
6 Press down on the shredded vegetable mix until the brine solution is squeezed to the surface.
7 Take a plastic sheet (200 gauge) twice the size of the mouth of the container and cover the mix.
8 Press down on the plastic sheet to expel all the air.
9 Pour water on the plastic sheet so that the sheet will be forced down on top of the vegetable mix.
10 Fasten the hanging edges of the plastic sheet with a thick thread around the neck of the container to make it airtight.
11 Keep the container in a cool place.
Note
Vegetables can be preserved by fermentation for about three months. But, once the container is opened, the vegetables in it should be used the same day. If this is not possible, preserve the leftover vegetables by bottling, refrigeration, or the use of preservatives.
Soft drink
To make a refreshing soft drink, add sugar and spices to the fermented juice, heat, and serve.
Preparation
Fermented vegetables are sour. So, wash the mixture thoroughly with water. This will remove the acid and salt. Cook the mixture to your taste.
Fermented juice
Instead of washing off the fermented juice, you might like to collect it and serve it as a nutritious drink. Fermented vegetable juice is rich in vitamins B and C. It is a good appetizer served before meals, and can be used as a stock for curries.
Contributor: Dr. Suneet Mukerjee
<section>Zero-energy cool chamber</section>
Spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables is a serious problem in tropical countries. Cool storage can prolong the life of fresh produce, but refrigeration equipment is expensive to buy, expensive to run, and expensive to maintain. There is, however, a practical, low-cost alternative for on-farm fruit and vegetable storage which employs the cooling power of evaporation. Zero energy cool chambers stay 10- 15° C cooler than the outside temperature and maintain about 90 percent relative humidity. And they are easy to build out of locally available materials, such as brick, sand, bamboo, straw, and gunny bags.
Living and breathing
Fresh fruits and vegetables are alive. They breath and ripen even after harvest. Cool temperatures stew this process, allowing you to keep your fresh produce longer and avoid spoilage.
Construction
1 Select a raised site close to a source of water.
2 Make a floor with bricks.
3 Erect a double wall 70 cm high, leaving a cavity 7.5 cm wide between the two walls.
4 Drench the chamber with water.
5 Soak fine, river-bed sand with water.
6 Fill the cavity between the double wall with this wet sand.
7 Make a cover frame of bamboo, sirki, straw, or dry grass.
8 Build a thatched-roof shed over the chamber to shield the chamber from direct sun and rain.
Operation
- Keep the sand, bricks, and top cover of the chamber wet.
- Water twice daily, in the morning and evening. A drip system can be built with plastic pipes, microtubes connected to an overhead water source.
- Store your fruits and vegetables in perforated plastic crates. Do not use bamboo, wood, or fibreboard boxes because these will be damaged by moisture.
Advantages
- Can be constructed by an unskilled person No mechanical or electrical energy is needed.
- Allows small farmers to store produce for a few days and thus avoid costly rush selling.
- Ideal for household storage.
- Reduces losses and thus pays for itself in a short time.
- Useful for temporary storage of curd, milk, and cooked food.
- Can also be used for mushroom cultivation, raising silk - worms, and storage of biofertilisers.
Disadvantages
- Requires a significant capital investment
- Operation relies on a reliable source of water throughout the year.
Shelf life of fruits and vegetables in zero- energy cool chamber
Produce
Time of storage
Outside(days)
Cool chamber(days)
Leafy vegetables
Summer
Winter
Other vegetables
Summer
Winter
Potato
Spring/Summer
Mango
Summer
Orange
Winter
Notes
Build your chamber on a site where breezes blow.
Build on an elevated site to avoid waterlogging.
Use clean, unbroken bricks with good porosity.
Sand should be clean and free of organic matter, clay, etc.
Keep the bricks and sand saturated with water.
Prevent water drops from contacting stored produce.
Keep the chamber clean.
The empty chamber should be treated with an approved fungicide and insecticide.
Caution
Remove all produce before treating the chamber with insecticide or fungicide.
Cost of cool chamber
Bricks (400)
Rs 400
Sand
Rs 50
Bamboo
Rs 30
Other accessories
Rs 120
Outside shed
Rs 400
Total
Rs 1000
Contributor: Dr. S. K. Roy
<section>Bamboo iceless refrigerator</section>
In rural areas, storage of vegetables, milk, and other perishable food items is a problem, especially in the hot summer months. The bamboo iceless refrigerator is a low-cost device for storing food. It can be made easily by rural women out of commonly available materials.
Materials needed:
- A cylindrical basket made of bamboo or slender sticks of wood with an open weave
- A loose-fitting lid
- Jute cloth
- Metal or clay tray (circular or square)
- Stones or bricks.
Build the iceless refrigerator large enough to meet your family's requirements.
Construction
1 Cover the basket loosely with the jute cloth. Sew the jute cloth around the rim of the basket. The lower end of the cloth must hang loosely around the bottom, exceeding the length of the basket.
2 Arrange four or five bricks or stones in a circle. Place the metal or clay tray on top.
3 Place three to five stones (or bricks broken in half) in a circle inside the tray.
4 Place the jute-covered basket on top of the stones in the tray. basket loose-fitting lid
5 Fill the tray with water. Make sure that the loose ends of the jute cloth dip into the water.
Using the iceless refrigerator
6 Place your perishable food in the basket.
7 Cover the basket with the loose-fitting woven lid. Cover the lid with a loose fitting, wet jute cloth.
8 The water will evaporate from the cloth, keeping the contents of the basket cool and fresh. Dampen the jute material-top and sides periodically with clean water.
Source: Consortium of Rural Technology, New Delhi
<section>Organic farming</section>
<section>Organic farming</section>
Deadly
Pesticides are dangerous to human health: 22,000 people die in developing countries each year from pesticide poisoning.
High dosages of fertilizers and liberal use of synthetic pesticides can pollute water, air, and soil. Pests can develop resistance to pesticides and previously unimportant pests can emerge
The health of the soil is also adversely affected. Certain micronutrients such as zinc, copper, and iron can become deficient in the soil over a period of time. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult for farmers to sustain high yields year after year.
How can we face this critical dilemma of consistently obtaining high crop yields without polluting soil, air, and water, and without depleting soil fertility? The answer perhaps lies
In organic farming.
What is organic farming?
The aim of organic farming is to increase productivity with minimum reliance on chemicals, while at the same time conserving resources. It is a rediscovery of the practices of our ancestors, but with a modern and scientific outlook. It nurtures the soil rather than just a particular crop.
The use of synthetic chemicals is minimized (to the level of bare necessity). There is a greater reliance on conservation and use of all resources available on the farm, including animal, human, and plant wastes.
The goal of organic farming is to achieve stability without sacrificing high production and without polluting water, soil, and air.
It requires a multidimensional approach emolovina many practices.
Integrated nutrient management
- Use minimum tillage practices to conserve soil organic matter and biotic life including earthworms.
- Convert all available biomass on the farm into compost rather than burning or otherwise wasting it. (See Compost-making and Vermicomposting.)
- Add at least 2-3 tonnes of compost per hectare annually. The ideal is 10 tonnes per hectare.
- Apply green manure to the fields after every second or third year. For instance, prunings from gliricidia or other leguminous trees planted on bunds can be incorporated in the rice fields at the time of puddling. This can reduce or eliminate the need for artificial fertilizers.
Incorporate leguminous plant material into the soil.
- Make up soil deficiencies, if any, (on a soil test basis) by applying minerals such as rock phosphate, gypsum, and pyrites.
- Manage weeds using nonchemical methods, rather than trying to eradicate weeds. (See Nonchemical methods of weed control.)
- Leave the weeds taken out of the fields to form a mulch and to decompose in the soil itself Or use them for making compost.
- Adopt suitable crop rotations, mixed cropping and intercropping, instead of growing one and the same crop year after year. This uses soil layers, space, and sunlight differently..
- Include legumes in the rotation; inoculate them with rhizobium culture.
Integrated pest and disease management
Organic farming uses various practices to manage the pest population at a safe level (one that does not cause economic injury) rather than completely destroying them using synthetic chemicals.
These practices include the following:
- Invert the soil after harvesting a crop to expose pests.
- Clean bunds and channels of grasses which harbour pests.
- Grow pest-tolerant varieties.
- Sow the crops at the right time.
- Sow healthy seeds.
- Increase the seed rate so that uprooting insectand disease-infected plants later does not affect optimum plant populations.
- Hand-pick and destroy egg masses, gregarious larvae, caterpillars, and adult beetles.
- Use light traps.
- Apply sticky grease bands on fruit trees to stop insects from crawling up the trunk.
- Release insect parasites and predators, and apply biological control agents such as Bacillus thurigensis.
- When pesticides are used, restrict these to a few mainly plant-based pesticides: neem, karanj products, derris (also known as rotenone), and pyrethrum
Integrated soil and water management
Apply irrigation water efficiently to avoid wasting water and controlling soil erosion and loss of nutrients through runoff and leaching. For this:
- Irrigate your crops only when needed, use only the required amount of water. For instance, fields can be divided into small sections which can be irrigated separately.
- Do not apply excess water at any one time. Avoid leaching soil nutrients beyond the root zone.
- Keep your fields levelled.
- Consider constructing prefabricated concrete channels to avoid water seepage and leaching of nutrients.
- Harvest water by constructing bunds, channels, and tanks to store water for future use.
- Conserve water in the soil by using mulch, cultivating along the contour, and breaking the soil crust to slow the evaporation of water from the surface.
Contributors/Sources: Dr. V. N. Shroff, Mr. C. V. Sheshadri, Ms. Chitra Gandhi, Dr. W. R. Deshpande, and Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Compost making</section>
Turn organic waste into compost for improved soil fertility and sustained crop production.
What is composting?
Composting is a big-chemical process in which micro-organisms decompose organic waste matter-crop residue, kitchen wastes, cowdung, urine-into a soil-improving product called compost.
The final product is a uniform, black mass of rotten, nutrient rich manure.
Advantages of adding compost to soil
Compost:
- supplies nutrients.
- improves microbial activity, which helps release soil nutrients for use by plants.
- checks pollution from manure heaps and leaching of urine into the soil.
- reduces the need for chemical fertilizers which are costly and potentially damaging to the environment.
- increases the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen, improving physical properties of soil and allowing higher response to chemical fertilizers and higher crop yields.
- improves soil structure, improving drainage and making tillage easier.
- increases the water-holding capacity of soil.
- helps check wind erosion by improving soil structure.
Selection of site for composting
Your compost pit should be:
- easy to inspect.
- built on higher ground to avoid waterlogging.
- near the cattle shed and a source of water.
- located away from the road to avoid contamination by lead and other toxic metals which, in turn, could contaminate food crops affecting the health of humans and livestock.
Caution
Compost and farmyard manure are major sources of weed seeds. Weed seeds withstand partial decomposition, therefore, put only fully decomposed compost and farmyard manure on your fields.
Three methods for making compost
Indore method
Raw materials for composting
Plant residues-Mix plant residues, weeds, sugarcane tops, leaves, grass, wood ash, bran, etc. Chop and crush hard woody material
Dung-Collect dung and bedding of farm animals, including the urine-soaked mud from animal sheds.
Wood ash-Wood ash reduces compost acidity and adds potassium.
Water and air-Both are necessary for bacterial and fungal activity.
Size of the compost pit
Width 2 to 2.75 m
Depth 0.75 to 1 m (not more than 1 m)
Length 3 m or more as required.
Method of filling the pit
1 Spread raw material evenly in the pit in layers 7 cm thick.
2 Add a layer of wood ash (if available) along with urine and mud.
3 Next spread a 5-cm layer of bedding with cattle dung and soil. Sprinkle with water until moist.
4 Continue adding layers until the material is 30 cm above ground level. Apply water. The heap will shrink as it decomposes.
5 Turn over the heap three times. Moisten with water each time.
Turning
Decomposition needs proper mixing as well as circulation of water and air. You can ensure this by turning over the material three times:
First turning 10-15 days after filling the pit.
Second turning 15 days later.
Third fuming after 2 months.
At the third turning, you can take it out of the pit and put it back in. This helps the bacteria to take nitrogen out of the air. In regions of heavy rainfall, compost pits should be covered by a shed. Compost-making should be discontinued between June and September.
Bangalore method
Raw material Same as for the Indore method.
Size of the pit
Width 2 m
Depth 1 m
Length 6 m
Method of filling the pit
1 Spread a 1 5-cm layer of farm refuse on the bottom of the pit and moisten this with water.
2 Follow this with a 5-cm layer of cattle dung and urine soaked mud.
3 Next apply a 2. 5- to 5-cm layer of soil.
4 Repeat the process until the heap is about 0.5 m above ground level.
The material decomposes within 8 to 9 months and the finished product is ready for use.
Nadep method (above ground)
Raw materials Waste organic material-about 1,500 kg. Cattle dung-90 to 100 kg (8-10 baskets) Dry-sieved soil-1,750 kg (120 baskets). Urine-soaked soil is most effective. Remove glass, stones, plastic, and other nondecomposable substances. Water-Enough to keep the pit moist.
Tank construction
Build a rectangular tank (3 m long, 2 m wide and I m high) made of brick walls and floor with mud mortar. Leave holes in the tank walls for aeration (about four holes along each side wall and two holes in each end wall). Plaster the inner walls and the bottom of the tank with a mud and cow-dung mixture.
Method of filling
First layer-15-cm compact layer of plant waste material.
Second layer-Cow-dung slurry: about 4 kg of cow dung mixed with 10 buckets of water (drench thoroughly).
Third layer-Add a 2-cm layer of fine, sieved soil (60 to 65 kg).
Keep adding layers in this way until the material is heaped 15 cm above the lip of the tank. Add another 7-cm layer of fine soil on top of the heap. Seal the tank with cow-dung plaster.
For best results
- Build a temporary shed of thatch and bamboo to shield your compost tank from direct sunlight and rain.
- After three to four months, digestion (composting) is complete. Do not disturb the pit during this crucial period.
- Compost is dark and has a pleasant smell. Sieve this compost through a thick mesh and it is ready to use.
Contributor/Source: Dr. V. N. Shnoff and Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Vermi-composting</section>
What is vermi-composting?
Vermi-composting is the process by which earthworms convert organic waste into fertile manure. With a little knowledge of earthworms and an investment of time and some inexpensive materials, you can fertilize your garden with rich vermicompost.
Living composters
Earthworms live in the soil, mixing it, making it porous as they help decompose soil organic matter. Earthworm casts are the excrete of earthworms. These casts contain five times the nitrogen of ordinary soil, seven times the phosphorus, eleven times the potash, two times the calcium and magnesium, and eight times the actinomycetes (useful bacteria).
Earthworms:
- feed on soil and soil organic matter and convert it to compost, making the soil rich in nutrients.
- encourage growth of useful micro-organisms, which also make soil rich.
- aerate and pulverise soil.
- are natural tillers of the soil.
- make soil porous, improving drainage.
- increase the water-holding capacity of soil.
- produce enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and antibiotics, thereby increasing immunity of plants against some pests.
Advantages of vermi-compost over other fertilizers
- Low cost to produce
- Easy to use
- Not harmful to useful soil organisms
- Converts organic matter to useful plant food
- Source of income
Earthworms suitable for vermi-composting There are two types of earthworm:
Surface feeders convert waste matter into humus. Surface feeders are needed for vermi-composting. Certain species introduced from Africa are very efficient humus producers. They can be bought from companies which produce vermicompost. Some important species: Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus eugivae, Perionyx excavates, Lumbricus rubellus.
Deep feeder move soil and humus around and aerate the soil. Most Indian earthworm species are deep-feeders and are not suitable for vermi-composting.
Materials required for vermi-composting For a 10-sq-m plot:
- Dry organic matter-200-300 kg
- Decomposed farmyard manure 300-400 kg
- Organic wastes-700-800 kg
- Earthworms-10,000
- Water-ready supply
Method of preparation
1 Erect a shed 5 m wide and 12 m long.
2 Under the roof of this shed, build a long, thin rectangular (1 m wide and 10 m long) bed of organic matter 15 cm deep.
3 On top of this, spread a layer of decomposed manure or biogas slurry 15 cm deep.
4 Moisten the bed with water and leave it for 48 hours.
5 Place earthworms uniformly at the rate of 1,000 per sq m on the top layer.
6 Spread a 20-cm layer of organic wastes, litter, etc., over the earthworms.
7 Cover with gunny cloth and sprinkle water regularly to keep the plot wet. During summer months, you might have to sprinkle water twice a day.
8 Turn the material after 30 days, cover it again with gunny cloth and keep it moist.
9 The whole material is converted to humus, called vermicompost, in 65-70 days.
10 You can build a second bed next to the first. Use the earthworms from the first bed to repeat the process. Two beds of this type will produce about 1 tonne of vermicompost every 3 months.
Application of vermi-compost
Field-2. 5 tonnes per hectare
Pots-50 grams per pot
Trees-apply vermi-compost at the rate of 100-200 g per tree, or place 100-200 worms around the tree trunk.
Reproduction
Under ideal conditions, earthworms multiply 20 to 25 times in
65-70 days. Use a sieve to separate the vermi-compost from the earthworms.
Use the earthworms to repeat the above process to make vermi compost throughout the year.
Keep moist
- Surface-feeding earthworms can survive only if the surface soil is kept moist. This can be done with drip irrigation. (See
Efficient use of irrigation water.)
- Where surface soil dries out, apply vermicompost each year at the beginning of the rainy season.
Developing an earthworm population
You can develop an earthworm population by placing earthworms or worm casts in the soil. After this, it is not necessary to apply vermi-compost; simply apply organic matter which the worms will convert into compost.
Maintenance
Take care to maintain an optimum number of earthworms in your fields. Their population is adversely affected by:
- use of chemical fertilizers.
- use of certain pesticides against soil-borne pests.
- inappropriate cultivation techniques, like use of rotary cultivators.
- acidification of soil.
- insufficient organic matter in the soil.
Earthworms are your friends. Protect them and nurture them in your fields. Adding vermi-compost and reducing the application of inorganic fertilizers will increase populations of deepburrowing earthworms, which turn over and aerate the soil.
Contributors: Dr. W.R. Deshpande, Dr. Chitra Srivastara and Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Bio-inoculants</section>
Bio-inoculants are living organisms containing strains of specific bacteria, fungi, or algae which:
- take nitrogen from the air and make it available to plants- reducing the need for nitrogen fertilizer.
- make inorganic phosphate and micronutrients soluble and available to plants.
- collect and store available nutrients.
- enhance plant uptake of phosphorus and zinc.
- provide physical barriers against pathogens.
- stimulate plant growth.
- decompose organic residues.
Biological nitrogen-fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen is taken from the air-or "fixed"-by micro-organisms which live on some leguminous and non leguminous plants.
Rhizobium
These bacteria live in nodules on the roots of legumes. Legume seeds can be inoculated to encourage the growth of nitrogen fixing nodules.
Rhizobia:
- meet 80 to 90 percent of the nitrogen requirements of legume crops.
- increase production of legume crone.
- benefit successive crops.
- minimize the chance of crop failure.
- increase soil fertility.
- are cost effective.
- are pollution free.
About 200 g of good quality rhizobium culture is enough to
An, treat 12-15 kg of seed. There are specific cultures for different crops. You can buy rhizobium inoculant from agricultural extension centres, agricultural universities, private dealers, and the National Biofertilizer Development Centre, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh.
Azotobacter and Azospirillum
These bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen in cereal crops. Azotobacter produce antifungal compounds against many plant pathogens and control nematode diseases. Azospirillum increase germination and improve vigour of young plants. One kg of seed needs 5 g of inoculant. This will fix 30 kg/ha of nitrogen per year.
Blue-green algae
Blue-green algae can fix 25-30 kg/ha of nitrogen per year. A paddy crop needs 10 kg/ha of algal powder, available from the National Biofertilizer Development Centre. Algal powder is not required after 3-4 years of continuous use in the field.
Blue-green algae in a paddy crop:
- produces 25-30 kg nitrogen (equivalent to 55-65 kg urea) per ha, and enhances yield 10 to 12 percent.
- is cost effective and pollution free.
- provides more oxygen to paddy roots.
- benefits the next crop.
Algae production
1 Prepare shallow trays (2 m x I m x 20 cm) of galvanized iron sheet. The size can be increased if more material is to be produced.
2 Spread 8-10 kg of soil and mix well with 200 g of super phosphate.
3 Add water to the trays (5 to 15 cm deep) depending on the rate of evaporation. The soil should be about neutral. If it is acidic, add lime.
4 After the soil has settled, sprinkle the algal culture on the surface of the standing water. Keep the trays in the open air, in direct sunlight.
5 Growth of the algae will be rapid in the hot summer months and in about 7 to 10 days they will form a thick mat. If the daily rate of evaporation is high, add water regularly. When the algal growth becomes sufficiently thick, stop watering.
Azolla
Azolla is a floating fresh water fern. It grows in stagnant water. The fern forms a green mat over the water surface. It readily decomposes to ammonia which is available to rice plants. Apply 10 kg of powdered, dry azolla fern per hectare.
Application Seed treatment-Rhizoblum and Azotobacter Top dressing-Rhizoblum, Azotobacter, PSM Crops Legumes-Rhizablum + PSM Cereal-Azotobacter + PSM Legumes mixed with nonlegumes-Rhizoblum + Azotobacter + PSM
For more information contact the National Biofertilizer Development Centre, CGO Complex 11, Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh 201002, India.
Mycorrhiza
Mycorrhiza are fungi which live in association with the roots of crops. The fungi stimulate plant growth, help the plants use phosphate, and protect the plants from disease. One kg of crop seed needs 7-10 g of inoculant, available from Mycology and Plant Pathology Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, and the Department of Botany, Delhi University.
PSM
Phosphate solubilising micro-organisms (PSM) convert soil phosphorus into forms that plants can use. To use PSM, mix 3 kg of PSM, 50 kg of farmyard manure, and the crop seed. Drill them together.
Methods of application
Bio-inoculants can be used two ways: as seed treatment and as top dressing in the soil.
Moisten the seed and sprinkle the inoculum at a rate of 5-10 g per kg of moist seed. Mix thoroughly and dry in the shade for an hour. Sow the inoculated seed immediately.
Top dressing
For legumes, mix 1.5 kg rhizobium or 0.5 kg Azotobacter or 3 kg PSM in 50 kg of farmyard manure or compost. Top dress.
For cereals and millets, use 2 kg of PSM.
Broadcasting
Mix 3 kg of PSM with 100 kg of farmyard manure and broadcast the granular mixture. Can be broadcast in a standing crop seed treatment
Source: Dr. W. R. Deshpande
<section>Multipurpose trees and shrubs</section>
Selection criteria
Select tree species and varieties that have these features:
- Adaptability to local climatic conditions
- Multiple uses high demand and value of the produce
- Fast growth, short time to harvest
- Vigorous regrowth after cutting
- Nitrogen-fixing ability
- Ability to improve soil
- Compatible with ground vegetation
- Easy management
Fuel and fodder collection is hard, time-consuming work for farm women. Multipurpose trees, grown on the farm in an organized manner, can significantly improve farm incomes by providing food, fodder, fuelwood, timber, gum, and building and fence poles, while reducing drudgery for farm women.
Trees consume carbon dioxide and release vital oxygen, maintain cool weather, increase rainfall, and protect soil from erosion and loss of productivity.
Trees on farm land
Suitable multipurpose trees can be incorporated on farm lands for a variety of uses.
Mainly protective
Windbreaks and shelter belts
In places where wind erosion is severe, like arid and desert areas, wind breaks and shelter belts of trees, such as Israeli babul, can reduce erosion.
Live hedges
Species, like vilayati babul and brij babul, can be grown as hedges around fields. They can serve as animal barriers, reduce soil erosion, and provide fodder, timber, and fuelwood.
Soil conservation
Species, like desi babul, ardu, and shisham, are reported to be good soil binders and help conserve soil.
Mainly productive
Boundary planting
Many tree species, such as eucalyptus, can be grown around farm boundaries for additional returns without adversely affecting crop yields. Care must be taken in site selection to avoid crop shading. Tree roots should be pruned by digging a trench along the crop boundary.
Agri-silvipasture, agri-horticulture
Forest trees, like shisham, anjan, subabul, and fruit trees, like aonla, guava, mulberry, and ber, can be introduced at suitable spacings in agricultural systems to stabilize the farm system and provide additional returns.
Silvipasture, hortipasture
As above, many of the same forest and fruit trees can be introduced in pastures and grasslands.
Home gardens
In humid regions, a mixture of many trees and shrubs in a multitier system can be profitable and ecologically sustainable.
Alley cropping
Hedges of subabul and gliricidia can be grown 8-10 m apart. Crops can be planted between the hedges. The hedges should be pruned regularly and the prunings used as mulch or fodder.
Multipurpose woodlots
Multipurpose trees, like babul, desi siris, shisham, eucalyptus, sesbania, subabul, ber, casuarina, neem, and kathal, can be planted on community bunds for fuelwood, charcoal, timber, poles, medicine, gum, pulp, and fodder.
Contributors: Dr. Punjab Singh and Dr. R S. Chillar
<section>Seed production and storage</section>
<section>Produce your own wheat, rice and pulse seeds</section>
Note
Make sure you start with pure clean seed stock.
After three years, it is best to buy new seed from a reputable seed vendor.
Do not try to produce seed of cross-pollinated crops, such as maize or sorghum.
Save money by producing your own seed of wheat, rice, and other self-pollinated crops. Make sure you start with pure, clean seed with desirable characteristics, suited to your growing conditions and to your needs.
1 Lay out your seed plot so that the variety being produced is isolated from other varieties.
2 Before sowing, clean the seed drill properly. No other seed should remain in any part of the drilling machine.
3 Examine the seed plot at different stages of crop growth. Remove:
- other crop plants
- weeds
- off-types (plants with characteristics different from those of the variety being produced)
- diseased plants
4 Harvest and thresh the seed plot before harvesting the main crop.
5 Clean the thresher and threshing floor properly before threshing the seed crop.
6 After threshing, clean the seed with a winnowing basket and remove small and cut seeds with the help of a sieve.
7 Dry the seed to a safe seed-moisture level. Store the seed in a proper container.
8 To prevent infestation by insects, fumigate your seed with Celphos 1-2 tablets of Celphos will fumigate 100 kg of seed.
9 Before sowing, treat the seed with a proper fungicide. For example, treat wheat seed with Vitavax at 2.5 g/kg of seed to prevent the seed crop from infection by loose smut.
Contributor: Dr. S. P. Sharma
<section>Storage of grain and seed</section>
About 70 percent of grain is retained by farmers for food, feed, seed, and sale or barter. During storage, grain declines in quality and quantity. These losses are caused by insects, rodents, birds, mould, heat, and spillage. Here are some simple methods which farm women can use to safely store grain. (See Safe grain storage structures )
Note
If you keep grain in cloth or gunny bags, open the windows of the storeroom during dry, sunny weather to allow ventilation.
Before storage
- Dry and clean your grain. The length of time needed to dry the grain will depend on the weather. Bite a grain to test its moisture content: if it cracks when you bite it, it is dry enough to store. If possible, dry the grain on a cement floor or hard, smooth, crack-free floor. Otherwise use plastic sheets or tarpaulins spread on the ground.
- Stir or turn the grain occasionally for uniform drying.
- Cover the grain to protect it from dusty winds.
- Clean and disinfect the storage structure remove all dirt and debris.
- Bird-proof the grain storage structure by stretching nets or wire mesh over the openings.
Storage
- Store only clean, dry, unbroken grain which is free from foul smell.
- Do not store grain in loose heaps or in damaged bags. Use gunny bags or bins.
- Store the grain away from wet areas.
- Do not place grain sacks near walls. Store grain sacks raised above the ground. This prevents entry of moisture from the walls and ground.
- Do not mix old grain with new grain. Also, do not store grain from a new crop near the grain from an old crop.
- Mix your grain with dried kernels of neem or use other plants with insecticidal effects, such as pyrethrum.
After storage
- Inspect the grain regularly for insects, rodents, and other pests. Take appropriate preventive measures. (See other sections in this manual.)
- From time to time, spread the grain in the sun. Spray with insecticides only if a large number of insects are detected.
- Regularly test the grain for moisture and re-dry when necessary.
- Keep storage structures and surroundings clean.
Seed storage
Generally there is a gap of 7-10 months from the time of harvest until the crop's next sowing. Depending on the crop, the seed produced in one season must be saved for planting in the next season. The quality of the seed at the time of sowing depends on the quality of the seed that entered storage and how well it was stored.
Note
Seed does not improve in storage. So, if you start with inferior seed, then you will end with inferior seed, no matter how much care you take.
Quality seed
Good quality seeds:
- germinate well.
- are free from dirt and seeds of other plants.
- are free from disease.
Caution
Do not eat grain that has been treated with chemicals such as Celphos (aluminium phosphide).
Seed grain needs special care
- Seed grain must be dried and cleaned more thoroughly than food grains before storage.
- During storage, use chemicals such as Celphos (aluminium phosphide) for seeds-but not for grains intended for consumption. Celphos is banned for food grains. One tablet of Celphos will treat 100 kg of seed. Place the tablet at the bottom of the seed container. It gives off a gas which keeps insects in check. The gas given off by Celphos is extremely harmful. After treatment, spread the seeds in the sun to allow the gas to escape, then wash the seeds with water and dry them in the sun.
- Do not disturb the seeds, but check them regularly for damage. If disease or pest damage is found, clean and disinfect the seeds.
- Try to keep seed bins airtight.
- Seeds to be stored in small quantities, such as vegetable seed, can be placed in a cloth bag inside a polythene bag. Tie the bags tightly.
Where to store seed
- Store seed separately from the grain crop. Store the seed in a room or bin made of stone, brick, or cement.
- Before sowing, test germination. Take 100 seeds at random. Put them in moist sand. At least 85 of the 100 seeds should germinate. If fewer than this number germinate, increase the amount of seed you sow.
Note
Seeds of certain crops store better unshelled, such as: maize, sorghum, millet, groundnut, cowpea, and sunflower. Shell these just before sowing.
Keep your seeds dry, cool, clean, and safe from pests. Check your seed stock regularly for moisture and pest damage.
Storage procedure
- Harvest the seed crop separately at the time of proper field maturity. Harvest seed only from healthy uniform plants.
- Thresh the seed gently to avoid damaging the seed coats. Remove broken, damaged, or diseased seeds, seeds of weeds and other crops, chaff, straw, soil, and other matter.
- Dry the seed thoroughly by spreading it uniformly over a clean sheet, or pucca floor made of stone, brick, or cement.
- Bite a few seeds to test for moisture content. Seeds which are hard to crack are dry enough for storage.
- Place the clean, dry seed in clean bags-gunny bags, hessian bags, or cloth bags-or plastic containers, metal bins, earthen pots, or mud-plastered bamboo bins.
- Spread a layer of sand, straw, or wood ash at the bottom of the container. This will help to keep the seed dry.
- Place dry neem leaves in the bags or containers. Neem controls insect infestation, especially in pulses which are easily damaged by insects.
- Seal the lid of containers with a mud pack mixed with linseed oil.
Maintenance of the seed store
- Dry seed bags in the sun at least every 3 or 4 months.
- Regularly inspect your seed.
- If the seed of any crop shows signs of insect infestation, remove it from the store.
- Clean and dry the infested seed and its container. Store this seed in a separate place for 2 to 3 weeks. Check for reappearance of insects. Return it to the storeroom only if it remains free from insects.
- Empty and fumigate the seed store at least twice a year and seal it with cow dung cake and straw to keep it dry and free from insects.
- Inspect the storeroom roof before the rainy season.
Contributors: Dr. Malvika Dadlani, Dr. A. Alam and Dr. K.S. Sckhon
<section>Safe grain storage structures</section>
Quality
Grain quality in storage is affected by physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological factors.
- Temperature
- Birds
- Moisture
- Rodents
- Insects
Farm families work very hard to grow as much grain as possible from their small plots. It is a costly shame, therefore, that as much as 15 percent of what they keep for food, feed, seed, and sale is damaged or lost in storage. Considering that farm families store about 70 percent of the grain they produce, this amounts to a considerable loss. But something can be done. about these losses. The following are some grain storage structures especially designed to preserve and protect the grain crop.
Grain bins
Traditional storage bins
Farm families use various grain bins of local design, made from locally available materials, such as bamboo, clay, mud, straw, jute bags, bricks, and wood. Traditional grain bins can be grouped into two main categories:
- Those made of unburnt or burnt clay, stone slabs, or bricks used to store grains and legumes. These bins restrict airflow but are ineffective against rodents and moisture.
- Those made of bamboo, wood, straw, or other dried plant material, used for storage of paddy and maize. These bins allow free flow of air for drying but are open to insects, rodents, fire, domestic animals, rain, and subsoil water.
Improvised storage structures
Stone slab, brick, and burnt clay bins can be made moisture-proof by placing polythene sheets between two layers of brick or slab and by building the bin on a raised platform. Such structures are safe for effective fumigation.
Bins for community use and for urban households Many other bin designs are available. Larger bins can be used by several households or whole communities. Smaller bins made of metal or plastic are suitable for households in urban areas. They can be bought from commercial manufacturers or made locally. Contact the addresses below for more information.
- Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee brick masonry bins
- Structural Engineering Research Centre, Roorkee reinforced concrete bins
- M/s Pest Control India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-reinforced concrete bins
- M/s Polyethylene Film Industries Pvt. Ltd., Madras-high-density polyethylene bins
- U. P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar-Pantnagar kutala
- Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun-timber silos
- Space Research Institute, Trivandrum-glass fibre bins
- Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 12
List of insect pests and nature of damage
Common name/Scientific name
Nature of damage
Angoumois grain moth/Sitotroga cerealella severe.
Larva bores into the grain and feeds on its contents. Grains give off an unpleasant smell and appear damaged when infestation is
Rice moth/Corcyra cephalonica
When infestation is high, the entire stock of grain can be cov red in a webbed mass of larvae.
Indian meal moth/Plodia interpunctuella
Grain is damaged by active, crawling caterpillars which can completely web over the surface of a heap of grain with their silken threads.
Almond moth/Cadra cautella
Caterpillars tunnel into the stored food.
Khapra beetle/Trogoderma granarium
Grubs eat the grain, finishing with the embryo. In severe infestation, grains are reduced to mere dust.
Rice weevil/Sftophilus oryzae
Larvae and adults feed inside grain.
Rust-red four beetle/Tribollum castaneum
Does considerable damage to flour and flour products. In the case of severe infestation, flour turns greyish and mouldy.
Lesser grain borer/Rhizopertha dominica
Adult grubs cause serious damage to the grains, reducing them mere shells with many irregular holes.
Grain dhora (pulse beetle) /Callosobruchus drinensis
Young larva bores into the grain and completes its life cycle inside the grain. Pulses become unfit for human consumption.
Saw-toothed grain beetle/Oryzaephilus surinamensis
Scrapes off grain surface and burrows holes.
Long-headed flour beetle/Latheticus oryzae
Feeds on broken grains and flour.
Flat grain beetle/Crytolestes minutus
Feeds on broken grains.
<section>Improved rodent-free grain storage</section>
How to detect rats
Squeaking and scratching noises
- Odour
- Rat droppings and urine marks
- Burrows
- Damage, such as torn bags, spoiled grains
- Chewed window and door sills
- Feet and tail marks on dusty floors, shelves, or table tops
- Grease marks
Prolific pests
Factors contributing to high rat population:
The life span of a rat is 12 to 18 months.
- Rats breed continuously throughout the year.
- First menses begins 4896 hrs after puberty.
- Rats are sexually mature at 6 to 11 weeks..
- A female gives birth to 5 to 21 young at one time.
- A female reproduces 4-6 times in a year.
Rats are a costly, unhealthy nuisance virtually everywhere they spread disease, destroy crops in the field, destroy stored food, damage household property, and damage forest and fruit trees. Rats consume and destroy more than 20 million tonnes of field crops, and more than 33 million tonnes of crops in storage around the world each year. In India alone, rats damage 11 million tonnes of crops annually with their urine, parasite carrying faeces, hairs, and secretions.
Control
There is no way to get rid of rats completely. Rats can, however, be controlled through a program of prevention and destruction.
Rat prevention
- Keep food in rat-proof containers.
- Keep left-over food in bins with tightly fitted lids.
- Do not pile rubbish, timber, or bricks near grain stores.
Rat destruction
When fields are flooded during monsoon, rats remigrate and concentrate near residential areas for food and shelter. As well, rats tend to breed during the rainy season. Therefore, though rats should be controlled throughout the year, trapping and poisoning rats during the monsoon is most effective.
Note
Trapped rats should be drowned in their cages in a pond.
Mechanical methods
Traps
Field rats-Bamboo bow and arrow traps, pot traps and break-back bans are useful for catching field rats. Break-back traps, as their name implies, are deadly.
Household rats-Rat trapping is an age-old practice. Spring traps and multiple cage traps are common for protecting food in
Some types of traps
Prevent entry into grain storage areas
- Plug holes with pieces of glass, cement, and plaster.
- Make sure doors fit tightly. Construct a solid platform 75 cm high-without steps or ladders-on which to store your grain.
- Fix metal sheets at the base of the door.
Flooding and smoking
Flood and smoke rat burrows in the field. For best results, this should be a coordinated, community effort, targeting as many rat burrows as possible.
Clubbing
Cornered rats can be clubbed with long, heavy sticks.
Chemical methods
Chemicals that kill rats are known as rodenticides. They can be single-dose or multiple-dose poisons. Among these are: zinc phosphide, barium carbonate, Warfarin, Rodafarin, Pival, and Restions. These compounds are highly toxic and cause rats to haemorrhage.
Types of bait
Three types of bait are generaly available.
Ready-to-use Rats can be fed directly when bait is of the ready-to-use type.
- Dry concentrate - Thoroughly mix 25 g of bait with 450 g of wheat flour, 10 g of edible oil, and 15 g of sugar or jaggery Do not add water.
Water-soluble baits-These are useful in rat reduction campaigns when rat infestation and temperatures are high. Mix one part bait with 20 parts of water. Put in a shallow container from which rats can drink.
How to use bait it, Before any poison is used, train the rats for a few days to eat unbaited food. Put the food in shallow containers and place these along rat runs and dark areas where the rats can eat without being disturbed. This makes the rats used to feeding on a particular food. This is called pre-baiting. After a time, add the poison to the bait.
Baits can also be pushed into rat burrows. This is called "torpedo baiting
Note
Dead rats should be buried.
Unburied dead rats are a health hazard and pollute me environment.
Delayed - action baits
Zinc phosphide kills rats instantly. Warfarin and other poisons kill after 6-7 days.
Rats are intelligent animals.
After a few rats die from zinc phosphide, other rats or 11 not eat this bait. Use Warfarin or other delayedaction poisons to ensure effective control.
Caution
Keep bait away from poultry and children.
After eating bait, rats look for water to drink. Therefore, keep all your drinking water protected, away from rats.
Rat damage to various crops In India:
Barley
Wheat
Groundnut
Coconut trees and nuts
Sorghum
Paddy
Gram
Sugarcane
Cocoa
Oil palm
Pigeon pea
Contributor Dr. L. M. L. Mathur
<section>Pests and pesticides</section>
<section>Integrated pest management</section>
Pesticides
Under IPM, pest populations are carefully monitored. Pesticides are used only when the pest population reaches a size where economic damage is likely and nonchemical methods will not work in time.
Integrated pest management (IPM) is an effective and economical way to control crop pests. It makes use of virtually all methods of pest control, including: natural pesticides, beneficial insects, special cultivation practices, and even chemical pesticides in the right measure at the right time. Some practical techniques of IPM are described below.
Cultural methods
Cultivation
Invert the soil by deep ploughing after harvesting a crop. This buries stubble, disease-infected trash, weeds, seeds, and insect larvae and pupae. Insects hibernating in the soil are exposed to the sun's rays and birds.
Crop hygiene
Destroy unwanted crop stubble. Scrape bunds and channels regularly to keep them free of grasses which are home to insect pests.
Fallow Land
Keep some portion of the land fallow and plough it deep, especially in summer, to reduce the population of some insect pests.
Flooding
If possible, flood your fields before cultivation in the summer. This exposes hibernating army worms, cutworms, white grubs, etc., to birds.
Irrigate before sowing
Control weeds in wheat crops by irrigation. Irrigate, prepare the land, and leave it for a few days. The weeds which sprout can be destroyed by ploughing.
Crop rotation
Avoid growing the same crop, or crops of the same family, over and over again in the same field. This can lead to a build-up of certain pests. Grow sorghum or maize before a cotton crop to reduce the incidence of cutworms.
Intercropping
Intercropping can reduce pest infestation. Grow sunflower side-by-side in the same field with cotton to reduce leafhopper damage. Grow cowpeas with sorghum to reduce stem borer in sorghum. Intercropping gram with wheat reduces attack from pod borer. A castor crop grown along with cowpeas will suffer less damage from aphids.
Trap crops
A "trap crop" is a crop grown as a companion to the main crop which will attract pests away from the main crop. Grow castor as a trap crop in your cotton, tobacco, and chill) crops. The castor will draw cutworm larvae away from your valuable primary crop.
Resistant varieties
Several varieties of rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, and other crops have been developed which are resistant to specific insect pests. Grow the insect-resistant varieties recommended for your region.
Grow varieties of proper duration
Short-duration varieties of pigeon pea escape attack from small pod borer which appears sometime in February, but long duration varieties are affected.
Seed rate
Increase normal seed rate by 20 percent. Then, uproot and destroy insect-infested and disease-infected plants. Because of the increased sowing rate, the optimum plant population can still be maintained. This is a good method for controlling sorghum shoot fly.
Healthy seeds
Treat seeds before sowing to reduce the incidence of seed-borne diseases such as smut. Soak seeds in 10-percent salt solution to treat borer-infested seeds. When sowing sugarcane, reject insectand disease-affected sets.
Time of sowing
Adjust sowing time to avoid pest damage or to ensure that the crop is sufficiently developed to better withstand attack. Maize sown at the start of the monsoon suffers less from borer infestation than maize sown earlier.
Spacing, irrigation, and fertilization
Avoid close spacing, avoid excessive use of irrigation to control insects and disease, and avoid excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers. Feed your crop a balanced mix of fertilizers which includes potash to build plant resistance.
Physical methods
- Transplant only healthy seedlings.
- Clip the tips of paddy seedlings before transplanting to reduce the carry-over of insect eggs to the field.
- Observe your crop closely at least twice a week.
- Promptly remove and bury insect-infested and diseased plants.
- Control top borer in sugarcane by cutting off the top, one inch below the last node.
- Control malformation in mango by removing and destroying affected bunches.
- Hand-pick egg masses, larvae, caterpillars, and adult beetles from crops. Immerse them in water mixed with kerosene to destroy them.
Mechanical methods
You can use several mechanical methods in conjunction with physical and cultural methods to reduce pest populations. For example, you can use a mechanical trap to combat rodents. You can pull weeds by hand, or use a hand hoe or some other simple mechanical weeding device. (See Drudgery-reducing implements for farm women.)
Light traps
Place light traps in the field to control rice leaf folder and rice stem borer.
Trenches
Dig trenches around pest-infested paddy fields to prevent migration of hairy caterpillar larvae.
Barriers
Some pests crawl up trees and attack the fruit. Smear grease around the trunk of fruit trees to prevent insects from crawling up. Smear a band of grease around the trunk of your mango trees in November to prevent mealy bug infestation.
Biological methods
Insects have natural enemies: parasites, predators, deadly microbes, birds, and other animals. These are your important allies.
Birds
Protect birds, such as the king crow, egret, cuckoo, wood pecker stork, warbler, and babbler, which feed on insects. Owls, bats, and peacocks help to control rat and mice populations.
Parasites and predators
Several agricultural universities in India mass-produce helpful parasites, and release them to farmers at the right time at low cost. Learn about the biological pest control services available in your area and use them.
Ask about:
- Trichogramma chilonis, T. japonicum, and T. achaeae.
These parasites feed on the eggs of many insects, including sorghum stem borer, sugarcane borers, paddy stem borer, cotton boll worms, tomato fruit borer, cutworms, and others.
- Chrysoperia carnea
This parasite controls aphids, white flies, mealy bugs, and young larvae of various borers, cutworms and cotton boll worms, and other soft-bodied insects.
Viruses
Some agricultural universities in India mass-produce helpful viruses (called mpv) which can be released into crops to control certain insect pests. The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has succeeded in controlling fruit borer in gram, tomato, cotton, and other crops by this method. Contact the agricultural university in your region for more information.
Botanical pesticides
Use plant extracts to ward off insect pests in your fields and at home. Some plant extracts kill insects; others repel insects; still others deter insects from feeding, or inhibit their growth. These are effective and less toxic to mammals and birds than are chemical pesticides.
Powdered neem kernel (1-2 kg per 100 kg of grains) will reduce damage caused by insect pests in stored grains and pulses.
Neem oil mixed with karanj oil (ratio of 5 parts neem oil to 1 part karanj oil) is effective against aphids in cotton. Mix 3 g of the oil in 1 litre of water.
Leafhoppers, caterpillars, and army worms are less attracted to a paddy crop treated with 3 percent neem oil.
Spray neem seed kernel extract 5 percent) mixed with water to control katra worms and borers.
Apply neem cake at the rate of 150 kg per ha to control rice hoppers.
Apply karanj cake at the rate of 150 kg per ha to control beetles in tobacco.
Dature, agave (cactus), pyrethrum, annona, and other plants are also known for their effectiveness in controlling insects.
Chemical method.
Judicious use of pesticides
Apply chemical pesticides only when other effective methods are not available. Use pesticides judiciously: the right pesticide, in the right amount, at the right time, in the right place. Choose less toxic and less persistent pesticides. Choose pesticides which control the pest species, but leave beneficial species and neutral species unharmed.
Consider the cost
Only spray when the value of me threatened crop justifies the expense.
Timing
If you must spray, apply pesticide in the right amount, at the right time, in the right place. Good timing is important. For example, spray early In me growing season when the pest is active but before natural predators and parasites have built up in large numbers.
Contributors and sources: Dr. N. K. Roy, Dr. L. M. L. Mathur, Dr. Jagdish Singh, Dr. V. N. Shroff, and Dennis H. Hill
<section>Neem for plant protection</section>
Use of synthetic pesticides for controlling pests and diseases in field crops and stored grain is hazardous. It is also-often unnecessary since a number of common plants can be fumed into effective pesticides. Neem is one such tree.
Neem
Neem is a large evergreen shade tree grown in all parts of India. It bears flowers in February-April and its fruit matures after 4 months. Important parts are the fruit, leaves, twigs, and bark. About 40 percent of the seed weight consists of the kernel which contains 25-35 percent oil and 65-75 percent neem cake. One neem tree gives 15-30 kg of seeds per year.
Uses
For centuries, neem has been used as a pesticide. Dried leaves protect clothes and books against termites and other household pests. Dried neem leaves also help to keep stored grain free of pests. Neem cake mixed in soap helps control soil-borne pests in field crops. Neem seed chemical repels insects, deterring them from landing, feeding, and laying eggs on crops. Neem seed chemical reduces the growth and development of some insects, or causes them to be infertile or eventually die.
Advantages
Neem products kill insects more slowly than synthetic pesticides, but neem has many advantages:
- Neem products are nonpoisonous. They do not affect people, birds, fish, and wildlife.
- Crushed neem seed kernel extracts are less costly than synthetic insecticides.
- Neem products do not pollute the air, water, or soil.
- Farmers can grow their own pesticides.
- Neem products can be made easily and cheaply at home.
Collecting and preparing seed
1 Collect ripe fruit fallen on the ground, or shake the tree branches and collect the fallen fruit.
2 Depulp immediately by hand or with a mechanical depulper.
3 Wash the seeds and dry them in the sun. Spread the seeds evenly on the ground and turn them regularly to ensure even drying. Make sure the seeds are thoroughly dry to avoid mould. (Mould affects both the amount of oil that can be extracted and the efficacy of the product.)
4 Store dried seeds in airy containers, such as baskets, jute or cloth bags, in a cool, dry place. Seeds can be stored up to one year, but not longer. Never store seeds in plastic bags.
Preparation of neem seed kernel extract
1 Collect fruit.
2 Remove seed coats.
Neem brands
Ready-made commercial neem products cost less than synthetic pesticides.
3 Crush 2 handfuls of kernels.
4 Add to 10 litres of water.
5 Stir for 20 minutes with a stick. Leave for 6-16 hours.
6 Add about a teaspoon of soap powder andteaspon of soap thoroughly.
7 Filter the contents through a muslin cloth.
8 Spray on crop. Depending on the size of the crop, you will need 2. 5-4 barrels of liquid (500
750 litres) to spray 0.4 ha (1 acre) of crop.
9 Repeat the spray after 5-6 days.
Preparation of neem oil emulsion
1 Put 500 ml of neem oil in a 10-litre bucket.
2 Add 50 g (10 teaspoons) of soap powder or Teepol. Stir well.
3 Add water to fill the bucket and stir until a white creamy liquid is formed.
4 If the oil forms on the surface as a separate layer, add more soap powder and stir again.
5 Spray the emulsion on a few plants before large-scale spraying. Wait for two days and check whether the spray has damaged the plants. If the plants are damaged, add more water to the liquid to reduce its concentration.
6 Spray 500-750 litres per acre, depending on the type and size of the crop. Spray until moisture runs off the plants. The crop should be completely covered (completely wet) with spray.
Contributors: Dr. R.P. Singh and Dr. Jagdish Singh
<section>Neem oil as mosquito repellent</section>
Mosquitoes and sandflies
- Neem oil is more effective against Anopheles mosquitoes (which carry malaria) than Culex mosquitoes (vectors of filaria ).
- Neem oil is also very effective in repelling sandflies.
Mosquitoes are a terrible nuisance, both in urban and rural areas of the country. They also transmit dangerous diseases, such as malaria, filaria, Japanese encephalitis, and dengue fever.
A number of mosquito repellents are used in India. Many of these repellents contain synthetic chemicals which can be harmful with prolonged exposure. Many people are also allergic to the vapours of these chemicals. There is an alternative. Neem oil is an excellent mosquito repellent. It is safe, cheap, and simple to use.
Method
Application on skin-Buy fresh neem oil in the market or press dry neem seed kernels to obtain the oil. Mix 2 ml of neem oil in 100 ml of coconut or mustard oil. Apply about a teaspoon of the mixture on exposed parts of the body such as the face, arms, and legs. One application of neem before going to bed in the evening will repel mosquitoes for 12 hours.
Neem oil in kerosene lamp-Use a tin lamp, 100 ml capacity, without a chimney. Mix 2 ml of neem oil with 100 ml of kerosene. Allow the kerosene to burn all night. Vapours from the lamp will keep mosquitoes away.
Powdered neem in water-Add 10 g of powdered neem cake to 100 litres of stagnant water (for instance, in household water tanks). This will prevent mosquito larvae in the water from developing.
Neem oil on heated mats-Make a 5 percent solution of neem oil in acetone. Apply this to a used mosquito mat for use in a commercially available mat heater. Mats, impregnated with nonneem-based repellent, and heater units are available under the brand name Baygon.
Contributor. Dr. V.P. Sharma
<section>Biological control of malaria</section>
Malaria is a serious, sometimes fatal iliness caused by parasites spread by mosquitoes. Fortunately, there are simple, low-cost ways to control malaria without resorting to dangerous chemicals.
Note
Children and pregnant women are especially at risk from malaria.
Mosquitoes and malaria
In order to protect yourself from malaria, you must first understand the life cycle of mosquitoes. Female mosquitoes live 4-6 weeks. They take a blood meal on alternate days; they also consume liquids from wet surfaces. Male mosquitoes live 7-10 days. They feed on wet surfaces and fruit juices. They do not feed on blood.
Mosquitoes complete part of their life cycle in water. Mosquito eggs are laid in water; they pass through larval and pupal stages in water before they emerge as adult mosquitoes. The process takes about a week.
When a female mosquito feeds on a person infected with malaria parasites, the mosquito becomes infected. The parasites develop within a week inside the abdomen of the mosquito. When the mosquito next feeds, the parasites are released into the bloodstream of the healthy person.
Mosquito breeding habitats
Mosquitoes breed in: wells, ponds, ditches, pits, drains, water tanks, irrigation tanks, rainwater collectors, marshy areas, rice field irrigation channels, seepage spots, stagnant water in fields, stagnant rivers, fallow fields with ditches, in any small or large amount of still water.
Prevention of malaria
The most common method of malaria control involves the use of insecticides, mainly DDT. Insecticides destroy mosquitoes but also harm many other organisms-insects, aquatic animals, and people.
Larvae-eating fish
A number of fish species eat larvae, but not all can be used to control mosquitoes. Fish suitable for controlling mosquitoes must be:
- small so that they can reach the grassy pond edges which shelter mosquito larvae.
- prolific breeders to keep up with the fast-growing mosquito populations, and to compensate for losses to fish-eating birds.
- of no commercial value.
- able to live in turbid, polluted water and withstand temperature variation.
- surface feeders to control the floating mosquitoes.
- hardy enough to withstand transportation and handling.
- prefer to consume mosquito larvae.
Two fish which meet the above criteria
- Guppy (Poecilia reticulate)
- Gambusia (Gambusia affinis)
Each consumes 200-300 mosquito larvae per day.
Guppy
- Guppy live 3-5 years.
- They mature in 90 days, when males are 1.8 cm long and females 2.5 cm long.
- The female produces 50-200 offspring a month in broods of 57.
- The guppy breeding season in the tropics is from April to November.
- They are ideally suited to polluted waters, such as drains, ponds, pits, and sewage tanks.
- They cannot survive at low temperature (below 5 C) or in highly polluted water, such as water contaminated with industrial wastes.
Gambusia
- Gambusia live 3-5 years.
- Males reach a maximum size of 4.5 cm and females 6.8 cm.
- Females mature in 3-6 months.
- Females produce 8-10 offspring per brood and usually produce 2-3 broods in a year.
- Gambusia are suited to fresh water, brackish water, and salt marshes.
Transporting fish
Fish can be transported short distances in any water filled tin or plastic container or plastic bag. For long distances, fish must be packed in water-filled polythene bags. The water must be oxygenated every 5-6 hours. (Slap the water surface with a small stick
Breeding larvae eating fish
Larvae-eating fish are available free from:
Fisheries Department, Delhi Administration, Timarpur, New Delhi or contact
Director, National Malaria Eradication Programme, 22-5 ham Nath Marg, New Delhi 1 1 0054.
Note
Fish are sensitive to chlorine.
Note
Mosquitoes travel about 3 km; so for best results, your control program should cover a 3-km radius around your village.
Fish multiplication in perennial village ponds
- Clear the pond of predatory fish by reseated netting or by application of mahua cake.
Release your breeding stock into a container of pond water to allow the fish to become acclimatized.
After 30 minutes, release the fish into the pond.
Usually there is enough fish food-zooplankton and phytoplankton-available in the pond and no artificial feed its needed
For faster growth of fish, dung and nitrogen fertilizers can be added to the pond.
Collect the multiplied fish in a tin container or elastic bucket.
Release in mosquito breeding sites
- Release the fish in mosquito breeding habitats at the rate of 510 males and females per square meter.
- Remove the grass from the edge of the pond or ditch where the fish will be released.
- Periodically net and remove predatory fish.
- Periodically check the fish for survival. Look for dead fish floating on the surface. Restock as needed. Try to discover what is killing the fish and remedy the problem. Consult the fisheries officer in your area for help.
<section>Non-chemical methods of weed control</section>
Weeding is an important but physically demanding chore mostly performed by women. Although many experts recommend chemical methods of weed control, chemicals pose serious hazards to human health and the environment. Therefore, nonchemical, less hazardous, yet less laborious methods should be considered.
Weeds are plants which compete with crops for water, nutrients, and sunlight. They are hardy, with deep root systems, and produce many seeds which, in some cases, remain dormant and viable for decades.
Controlling weeds Weeds can be controlled through proper management, using simple implements and biological methods.
Proper crop management
1 Place fertilizer on the ground near the stem of crop plants. This will give nutrients only to the main crop, rather than to weeds.
2 Keep channels clear of weeds. This will reduce the number of weed seeds washed into your crop. It will also keep the water flowing freely. Good irrigation practices give crops a good start over weeds.
3 Grow crops in proper rotation to keep weeds down. Two to three short-duration crops should be grown in rotation in the same field. Change the crop rotation periodically (after a few years) to prevent problem weeds from establishing. Grow at least one soil-maintaining legume crop in each rotation If a problem season is expected, select a crop which will prevent weeds from growing.
4 Clean your seed to remove weed seeds. Destroy the weed seeds by burning or burying them.
5 Major sources of weed seeds are farmyard manure and compost. Weed seeds withstand partial decomposition. Therefore, apply only fully decomposed farmyard manure or compost to your fields.
Mechanical methods
Irrigate your field a few days before sowing the crop. Plough the field to destroy the weeds that emerge before sowing the crop.
2 A few implements are available which make weeding easier. Among these are the wheel hand hoe and Triphali. (See Drudgery-reducing implements for farm women.)
3 Burn weeds to get rid of accumulated vegetation or destroy dry tops of mature weeds. Burning will kill even green weeds and will destroy buried weed seeds.
4 Mulch the crop by spreading dry or green crop straw, sawdust, bark dust, and other plant parts. Paper, plastic sheets, or polythene films are also used as soil covers. This method is effective against annual and perennial weeds.
5 Flooding is used for weed control in fallow rice fields. Surround the weed-infected area with dikes, and maintain the water at 15-30 cm depth for 3 to 8 weeks.
Biological weed control
1 Some crops which grow rapidly have an advantage over slow-growing or late-emerging weeds. Such crops include maize, sorghum, soybean, and cowpea.
2 Weeds face tough competition when the crop plant population is high. Plant population can be increased by reducing the row spacing or plant-to-plant spacing within the row. This has a smothering effect, reducing weed emergence and establishment.
3 Bio-control agents, like azolla, can also be used to control weed populations in rice fields.
Contributor. Dr. V. M. Bhan
<section>Safe use of pesticides</section>
Pesticides are toxic chemicals. They must be used with extreme care. Most farm women, however, have no formal training or information on proper use of pesticides. A large majority of women take no precautions whatsoever when working with pesticides. The result: many women handle, transport, and apply pesticides in ways which can lead to deadly consequences. It is critical, therefore, that you learn the following techniques for safe pesticide use.
Buying pesticides
Before buying pesticides, you must answer the following questions:
- Which pest is to be controlled?
- How much damage has the pest done?
- Are sufficient predators already in the field or are they likely to be there soon?
- What are the recommended pesticides for the pest problem?
- Which is the least toxic and least persistent among the recommended pesticides?
Buy pesticides from a reputable and reliable licensed store.
Do not buy in bulk, buy only as much as you expect to use within a short period. i Do not buy if the container is rusted, torn, leaking, or if the date of use has expired
4 Buy only pesticides in their original package with proper labelling.
5 Buy only pesticides with the ISI mark. This shows that the pesticide conforms to the standards laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
6 Do not buy banned, restricted, or highly toxic pesticides.
Note
Use pesticides only as a last resort and as part of an integrated pest management strategy. See Integrated pest management.
Transportation
1 Avoid carrying pesticides on public transport.
2 Do not transport pesticides together with food products, fodder, or other commodities.
3 Make sure that pesticides are adequately packaged and do not spill or leak out.
4 If the pesticide spills or leaks, wash the vehicle that has been used for transporting the pesticides. For this, apply bleaching lime paste (1 kg of lime for every 4 litres of water) and wash it off with water twice or three times within an hour after its application. If the pesticide spills onto clothing, follow the instructions below, under "After application."
Storage
1 Do not keep pesticides in the kitchen or living room. Keep them away from food, animal feed and fodder, and containers of potable water.
2 Keep pesticides locked away and ensure that they are out of reach of children and pets.
3 Preferably, store pesticides in a separate room which is well-ventilated and is away from sunlight, fire, and water.
4 Be careful of cross-contamination. Store herbicides separately from other kinds or pesticides.
5 Do not keep medicines for humans and livestock together with pesticides.
6 Reseal containers after partial use.
Waiting period
Pesticides leave residues on crops. Observe the waiting period specified on the label or recommended by your extension worker. The waiting period depends on the type Of crop, the pesticide used, and the dosage.
Application
The waiting period is the minimum length of time you must wait after applying the pesticide before it is safe to harvest the crop. Do not harvest crops (especially vegetables) until the waiting period for the pesticide has passed.
- Do not work alone while handling or applying pesticides.
- Never allow children, animals, or unauthorized people near the site of mixing and application.
- Always use a long wooden stick for mixing pesticides in water.
- Spray early in the morning or in the evening. Suspend spraying during midday in summer months.
- Avoid excessive spraying. The spray should not drip onto the soil.
- Read the label and the instructions care fully before opening the pesticide packet or bottle.
- While mixing, pour the liquids carefully. Prevent splashing. Prevent powdered pesticides from blowing into your face. Mix with a long stick to prevent the liquid from splashing onto your hands.
- Never eat drink or smoke while mixing or appliyng pesticides.
- Wear protective clothing: rubber boots, a rubber apron, goggles, face mask and respirator. If a face mask is not available, cover your mouth and nose with a clean cloth Women must not wear loose clothing, such as sarees. Keep a separate set of clothing to wear when handling and applying pesticides. Wash these clothes immediately after use.
- Avoid application of pesticides on rainy or cloudy days.
- Never blow out clogged nozzles or hoses with your mouth. Use a fine wire or pin.
- Check the wind direction before starting to spray. Start spraying at the downwind edge of the field and move upwind so you are always moving into an unsprayed area. Always move along the wind while spraying and dusting so that the spray or dust is directed by air current away from you. Do not spray in strong winds. Try to avoid spraying when large number of bees are visiting the crop, normally when the crop is in flower.
Caution
Do not spray in strong wind. Mix pesticides only in the field where you will spray. This will reduce the risk of spillage. Never mix pesticides inside your house.
Caution
Pregnant women and nursing mothers should not handle or apply pesticides.
After application
1 Immediately after spraying, take a bath and change your clothes.
2 All clothes must be washed immediately after spraying. Wash them separately from other clothes.
3 Never leave pesticide in sprayers and dusters. Clean equipment with soap, detergent, or soda solution and fresh water. Rinse with clean water once or twice before returning the equipment to storage.
4 Dispose of all empty pesticide containers by burning or burying them in the field. Do not use them to store food, water, or as cooking utensils. Do not sell empty containers to hawkers because they might end up being misused.
5 Return unused pesticide to the storage place and keep it under lock and key.
6 Do not go into a treated field until the recommended safety period has passed. Read the pesticide label or ask your extension agent about safe waiting periods.
Contributors and sources: Dr. N. R. Roy, Dr. L. M. L. Mathur, Dr. Jagdish Singh, and Dr. Nelia Maramba
<section>Hazard of pesticides</section>
Exposure
Human beings can be exposed to pesticides in two ways:
- Environmental exposure Indirectly through pesticide contaminated food, air, and water.
- Occupational exposure directly during the mixing, loading, or application of pesticides.
Symptoms of exposure
There are two main groups of pesticides, organochlorines and organophosphates. Look for these symptoms of exposure.
Organochlorines-skin irritation, burning sensation, stiff and sore muscles, headache, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain.
Organophosphate-(mild exposure) headache, fatigue, dizziness, blurred vision, excessive sweating, nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea;(moderate exposure) inability to walk, chest discomfort, muscle twitching; (severe exposure) unconsciousness, convulsions.
While some people might understand the hazards of pesticides to human beings and animals, few know that indiscriminate use of pesticides can lead to deterioration of the environment and ecological imbalance. By far, most insect species are beneficial to humans. Each has an important place in the ecological system. But, pesticides kill beneficial insects and pests alike, disturbing the natural balance and leading to surges in pest populations. In time, the continuous use of pesticides leads to resistant pest populations. Combating these resistant populations with higher doses of pesticides leads to poisoned soil and water.
Effects on people
Disturbed cell metabolism
Human bodies are made up of tiny living cells. Pesticides make these cells sick, unable to fight off disease..
Congenital deformities
Pesticides accumulate in people, particularly in their fatty tissue and reproductive cells. This can lead to birth defects, abnormalities, abortions, and premature deliveries.
Impaired eyesight
Farm workers who regularly spray pesticides can suffer from impaired eyesight.
Liver damage
The liver is particularly susceptible to damage by one group of pesticides, the chlorinated hydrocarbons, which can lead to higher risk of serious infection.
Environmental exposure
Poisons are released into the environment when crops are treated with pesticides.
Air pollution
Air pollution results from spraying and dusting of pesticides in the field. Factories manufacturing pesticides also contaminate the air with their emissions.
Hazards of pesticides
Soil and water pollution
Rain soon after the application of a pesticide can wash poisonous pesticides into the soil and into surface and groundwater. Factories that manufacture pesticides might discharge pesticide-laced effluents that flow into surface water
Food contamination
Pesticide residue on fruits, vegetables, and grains is another threat to human health.
Animal products meat, milk, and eggs-can also contain pesticides. (Animals are often treated with pesticides to remove lice. They can also feed on fodder and grains treated with pesticides.)
Human bodies store pesticides, especially in fatty tissue. As a result, breast milk can be contaminated, affecting the health of infants. In fact, babies can be exposed to pesticides before birth.
Occupational exposure
Farm workers handle concentrated forms of pesticides. For them, the most common routes of pesticide exposure are:
Skin contact
Pesticides enter the body when liquid pesticides splash or spill on clothes or directly on the skin. Skin also absorbs pesticides in dust form. Cuts, abrasigns, sores, and wetness on the skin allow pesticides to enter more easily.
Inhalation
Dusts, sprays, and fumes can enter the body through the lungs. Poor ventilation in pesticide stores results in increased exposure. (See Safe use of pesticides.)
Oral contact
Pesticides are absorbed through the lips, mouth, and skin.
Pesticides are taken in by people who eat, drink, and smoke while handling pesticides, or who try to blow out clogged nozzles and hoses.
Eye contact
Pesticides can be absorbed into the body or eyes can be damaged, if pesticides blow or splash into the eyes.
Effects on insects
Besides killing insect pests, insecticides also kill beneficial insects, such as honey bees and other pollinators, parasites, and predators, thus disturbing the balance in nature. Uncontrolled, prolonged use of an insecticide can result in the breeding of insecticide-resistant pests, causing a resurgence or more virulent attack by insects.
Effects on plants
Excessive doses of pesticides can harm crops. Improper use of herbicides can harm the main crop, the following crop, and other useful vegetation grown later.
Effect on animals Pesticide residues can harm or even kill domestic animals as well as fish, birds, and other wildlife.
Contributors and sources: Dr. A. K. Kaheja, Dr. G. C. Tiwari, Ms. Sarojini Rengam and Karen Snyder
<section>Pesticide facts and fiction</section>
Consumers beware
Large quantities of pesticides are used on vegetables which go directly from the farm to consumers. Both farmers and middlemen apply pesticides to vegetables
Cotton
Only 5 percent of India's crop area is used to grow cotton, but cotton accounts for 50 percent of the pesticides used in the country.
Pesticide use in India has increased rapidly in the past few decades. At present, the annual consumption of pesticides in the country is approximately 80,000 tonnes of active ingredients, with an average consumption of about 400-450 g/ha. India ranks second in Asia after Japan and tenth in the world in pesticide use. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Gujarat, and Karnataka alone account for 83 percent of pesticide consumption in India. Nearly 67 percent of the pesticides are used for cotton and rice cultivation. About 70 percent of the pesticides in India are insecticides; many of these are organochlorine compounds which leave harmful residues.
Popular misconceptions
Misconception 1
We need pesticides to grow more food for hungry people.
Facts
- Currently, the world produces more than enough food for everyone. The problem is not insufficient production but the inability of the poor to pay for, or to grow, the food they need.
- It is possible to grow enough food using a minimal amount of pesticide.
Misconception 2 Pesticides are a cheap, effective way to control pests.
Facts
- Indiscriminate use of pesticides can increase crop losses in the long run
- Pesticides lose their effectiveness over time.
- At first. chemical pest control seems cheap and effective, but soon pests develop resistance to these chemicals.
- Since the natural enemies of pests are destroyed as well, pests multiply in greater numbers.
- Farmers tend to apply ever larger doses of more powerful, more costly pesticides, or even mixtures of pesticides to combat resurgence. The cycle continues.
Misconception 3
The adverse effects of pesticides, if any, are confined to the areas where they are applied.
Facts
- Particles of pesticide can be carried thousands of miles by wind, rain, snow, and surface water.
- Pesticides can enter the water and soil and affect large areas.
- Pesticides can alter the ecological balance over a wide area.
- Pesticides can also get into the food chain, harming fish, livestock, and people.
Misconception 4
Plants, animals, and people can only be affected by direct exposure to pesticides.
Facts
- Direct exposure to pesticides (through touch and inhaling) are harmful. But, indirect, long-term effects, such as groundwater poisoning, are also very serious.
Misconception 5
Pesticides usually disappear after they are applied.
Facts
- Many pesticides do break down rapidly, but others, such as DDT, Dieldrin and BHC, can remain toxic for as long as 20 years.
- Breakdown products of some pesticides (e.g., Malathion and Aldicarb) are more toxic than their parent compounds.
Misconception 6
Pesticides are tested in laboratories and in extensive field trials before they are sold in the market.
Facts
- The United States has the most stringent testing standards in the world. Yet, few pesticides have undergone all the legally required tests, especially for birth defects, genetic effects, and damage to the body's nervous and immune systems.
- Many pesticides sold in the developing world do not conform to accepted standards. Many are fake products or are adulterated.
Misconception 7
Application or handling of hazardous chemicals is done solely by men, women have nothing to do with pesticides.
Facts
- In a large number of cases, women handle pesticides directly while mixing and spraying. Women are often responsible for mixing pesticides and maintaining and cleaning the spraying equipment.
- During storage of household food grains and seeds, the chemicals are handled mostly by women.
- Women head 12-16 percent of farm households in India. In these households, women must perform all agricultural tasks, including pesticide handling and application.
- Many women are employed in rice mills, dal mills, ginning factories, and in the bidi industry, where they are exposed to pesticide residues.
- Agricultural operations like sowing, weeding, and harvesting are done almost exclusively by women. Women also work on coffee, tea, cashew, spice, cotton, and other plantations, all of which involve heavy use of pesticides.
Contributors: Dr. H. K Sawhney and Aarti Gombar
<section>First-aid measures for pesticide poisoning</section>
Pesticide poisoning symptoms: at first
Irritation of eyes, skin, throat, and lungs, headache and tiredness. then
Giddiness, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, muscle twitching, abdominal cramps, diarrhoea, breathing problems, convulsions, and unconsciousness.
Be prepared
When you spray or handle pesticides. always make sure you have dean water, soap, and a dean cloth at hand. You can use these to wash off any spilled pesticide.
Farm women often suffer from itching, burning sensation on their hands and feet, as well as watery eyes after spraying pesticides or working in freshly sprayed fields. Some pesticides are more toxic than others. Misuse of such pesticides can cause iliness or even death. Simple first-aid measures, if applied at the right time, can help to save many lives.
First-aid measures
In case of skin contact
1 Remove the patient from the source of contamination.
2 Remove the patient's contaminated clothing.
3 Wash the patient thoroughly with plenty of water and soap.
4 Hold her eyelids open, and wash her eyes with cool, clean water.
In case of Inhalation of pesticide
1 Remove the victim from the place of exposure. Bring her to fresh air. Loosen the victim's clothing to allow easier breathing.
2 If conscious, place the victim in a sitting position with head and shoulders elevated.
3 If not conscious, turn the victim to lying position with head to one side. Watch her breathing.
4 If breathing stops, give artificial respiration.
It pesticide Is swallowed
1 Check the pesticide label to see if you should induce vomiting.
If so
2 Make the patient sit or stand up.
3 Give 1 to 2 litres of salt water.
4 To induce vomiting, tickle inside the patient's throat using a blunt instrument, such as the handle of a spoon. Use two fingers of your other hand to force the patient's cheeks between her teeth.
5 After vomiting, give the patient milk to drink. This helps counteract the poison.
6 Make the patient lie on her side, with her head lower than the rest of her body.
If breathing stops, provide artificial respiration
1 Turn the patient on her back.
2 Pull the chin forward and head backward to prevent the tongue from dropping to the back of the throat.
3 Remove any vomit or obstruction from the air passage.
4 Pinch patient's nose and blow into her mouth.
5 Make sure the patient's chest expands each time you blow into her mouth.
6 Continue until the patient resumes normal breathing.
In case of convulsion
1 Insert a padded gag between the teeth to prevent the patient from biting her tongue.
2 Gently restrain the patient to prevent her from hurting herself.
High body temperature If the patient is extremely hot or is sweating excessively, sponge her with cold water.
Low body temperature
If the patient is cold, cover her with a blanket.
General management
1 Take steps to obtain immediate medical attention.
2 Keep the patient calm and comfortable.
3 Place patient on her side, with her head lower than the rest of her body.
4 Keep a close watch on the patient's breathing and state of consciousness. Take immediate action in case breathing stops
5 Identify the product(s) to which the patient was exposed Save the pesticide container, label, and leaflet to show to the doctor.
Source: Dr. Nelia Maramba
<section>Save your crop from bird damage</section>
Bird pests-the main culprits
- Common house sparrow
- House crow
- Common myna
- Blue rock-pigeon
- Red-ringed parakeet
- Dove
Some types of birds are useful to farmers because they eat insect pests. But some birds do a lot of damage. They can virtually destroy a crop and spoil tons of produce in storage. Scaring harmful birds is an important but tedious task most often the responsibility of children and women.
Damage
Crops commonly damaged by birds include pearl millet, barley, maize, mustard, sorghum, sunflower, and wheat. A single bird consumes 8-25 grams of fruit and grain per day. This is a fraction of what a bird can spoil with its scratching, pecking, faeces, and feathers
Control
Birds are difficult to control; they are intelligent, adaptable, and move from place to place. Birds can get used to certain control methods, so it is important to change the method used, to innovate. Farmers are generally seen slinging stones or making noise to scare birds. These are inefficient and uneconomical ways to reduce crop loss.
Cotton and nylon nets
Cotton string nets of different size and mesh are usually spread over mango groves and fruit orchards. Cloth bags are tied to individual fruits, such as pomegranate and papaya. Nylon nets with l/2-inch mesh to prevent the passage of small birds are used on small crop areas. Nets are expensive and not feasible to protect larger areas. They are recommended to protect valuable crops, such as breeder seed for multiplication.
Scarecrows
Scarecrows of different sizes and shapes scare birds at the sowing and dough stage of the crop.
Protokrop
Protokrops are simple machines which produce regular loud blasts, effective for scaring birds.
Fireworks
Fire or sudden flashes of light, often accompanied by loud noise, are frequently used in the form of crackers and rocket crackers.
Recorded noise
Recorded distress calls are amplified over speakers to drive away perching birds from the fields. This is more expensive than protokrops but more effective in orchards and smaller crop areas.
Reflective ribbons
Polypropylene, metallic, shiny red and silvery white strips, 1015 m long and 15 mm wide, are tied to stakes in the field. Between 50 and 60 such strips, tied from north to south, are required per hectare. The reflection of bright sun rays and the humming sound produced by the wind over the strips scare birds from the fields.
Neem extracts About 23 neem-based pesticides are produced commercially in India. Some of them are: Neemhit
- Neem oil emulsion
- Nimbecidine
- Neem-based emulsifiable concentrate Dispersible powder or granules
Stickers
Sticky repellents, with or without toxic chemicals, can be painted on tree bark. Among these, lassa, made out of jackhruit milk, gum arable, or commercial coal tar on a silica-based paint are the common products used as stickers to repel birds.
Repellents
De-oiled neem cake broth (300 g of cake per litre of water) sprayed on maize ears repels birds from fields.
Tightening of husk
Some people wrap maize cobs with leaves. This is effective, but only to a point. At maturity, these leaves dry and loosen their grip, leaving cobs exposed to birds. Parrots peel the cob husks, destroying more than they consume. Bicycle tubes and polyethylene net cones offer effective alternatives. Wrap the tip of cob husks with rubber bands made from 1.75-cm-wide strips of inner tube. Or, use polyethylene net cones. Both are easy to apply and will protect cobs until harvest. They can also be reused, season after season.
Culling
If the bird pest population is alarmingly high, you can reduce the natural population of birds around the fields and orchards by tipping nests, trapping birds, destroying eggs, and fumigating the perches. Be careful to destroy only nests of those species that damage crops.
Contributor: Dr. L. M. L. Mathur
<section>Beekeeping</section>
Raising bees for honey is called beekeeping or apiculture. With knowledge of bees, a little equipment, and practice, farm women can harvest honey and wax for home use and sale.
And, honey bees are important pollinators of field crops. which means better harvests.
Honey bee colonies
Honey bee colonies can be established easily in areas rich in flora. Places abundant in flowering plants can yield honey almost year-round.
Honey bees are social insects and form three distinct castes in a colony. The queen bee mates with the drone once or more during its lifetime and continues to lay eggs until she dies. The drones are attended by worker bees during the breeding season. The worker bees maintain the colony, gather pollen, take care of the young, the queen bee, and the drones.
Beehives
Beehives or nests are built downwards from ceilings or the lower surface of tree branches. Hives are comprised of thousands of six-sided cells made of wax and filled with honey.
Building a beehive
Bees can be encouraged to build their hives in special frame structures for easy care and harvesting. Several designs are available.
Money-maker
Beekeeping is a low-cost source of income for small and marginal farmers.
There are two main species of honey bees for domestication:
- Apis melifera Western honey bee
- Apis Indira Indian honey bee
Beekeeping tools
Smoker. Smoke makes bees docile and easier to handle.
Hive tool. This piece of flattened iron bent at one edge is used to carry frames, scrape combs, and pull out nails.
Bee veil. Cotton or plastic netting will protect your face from bee stings. You will also need thick, loose-fitting clothing, such as overalls, to protect yourself from stings.
Uncapping knife. A long, broad knife with a strong, shard blade is used to remove the wax that caps each honey cell.
Queen excluder. This is a perforated aluminum or zinc sheet through which the workers can pass but not the large queen.
Honey extractor. Combs full of honey are uncapped with the uncapping knife. The combs, one after the other, are then placed in a holder attached to a device which spins the combs at great speed. Honey is thrown out by centrifugal force into a collection bucket.
Embedder. This device is used to emboss the foundation plate. See the box on "Making a starter comb."
Bee management
Note
Some cells in a honeycomb are brood cells where bees grow to maturity. The cells of worker bees are sealed with a bulging cap of wax. The cells of drones are sealed with a bulging cap of wax with a hole in the centre. A developing queen occupies the "royal cell" which is always located in the centre of the comb. Honey cells have flat, air-tight caps.
Making a starter comb
Bees build their combs on foundation combs prepared by the beekeeper. A smooth piece of wood is dipped in molten wax. A device called an embedder is used to stamp outlines of the six sided cells. The six-sided pieces of wax stamped out by the embezzler are removed to leave shallow impressions around which the bees will build their cells.
Beeswax Uses of beeswax:
- Candle-making
- Batik-making
- Ointment preparation
- Leather strengthening
- Waterproofing fabric honey extractor hive tool bee smoker
1 Place your beehives in a shaded area, on wooden benches 45 cm off the ground. Face hives in different directions. Do not place them in a straight line. This will help bees to find their hives.
2 Smear grease on the legs of the benches to prevent ant attack.
3 Start beekeeping in the spring.
4 Remove the queen cells when you notice overcrowding (when you notice bees crawling over one another), and distribute brood frames to make equal-sized colonies.
5 Feed the bees sugar syrup in summer when plant nectar is not available. Place a water dish outside the hive.
6 Add combs to avoid overcrowding.
7 Sprinkle water over the hives at least twice a day to reduce high temperatures during summer months.
8 Store strong and disease-free colonies during winter. Cover hives to protect them from extreme cold.
Advice to beekeepers
- Literature on honey bees and their management can be obtained from expert beekeepers.
- Training courses and bee colonies can be obtained from state agriculture extension agencies, Khadigram Udyog Industries, and subject matter specialists of agricultural universities.
Hive frame covered with bees and filled with honey.
You will need help to establish your first hive. Seek advice from a local beekeeper.
Contributor: Dr. L. M. L. Mathur
<section>Drudgery reduction</section>
<section>Drudgery-reducing implements for farm women</section>
Women do many of the most difficult farm tasks in India. Transplanting, weeding, harvesting, and post-harvest processing of produce. All of these tasks are time-consuming and full of drudgery. Below are some improved implements and machinery which can help reduce drudgery and physical exertion
Weeding implements
Dryland weeder
This peg-type weeder is excellent for row crops on sandy and loamy soils. It can be operated easily by one person. When the weeder is pushed forward, the drum rotates through the soil and the curved blade cuts the roots of weeds. The weeder has a working width of 15 cm and can weed about 0.025 ha/hr.
Multipurpose weeder
This multipurpose weeder is especially useful on hilly terrain. The weeder's cutting edge can cut small bushes and the curved blade can be used for weeding between crop plants. Its designer says this veeder reducer drudgery by 25 to 30 percent compared to traditional hand hoeing on terraced or sloping land.
Rotary paddy weeder
This manual weeder is effective for light weeding in paddy fields. It can be operated easily by one person. The weeder is pushed and pulled, forward and back, continuously between paddy rows. The rotating blades go below the surface to cut and turn up weeds. It can weed about 0.025 ha/hr. This rotary weeder can be made using local skills and local materials.
Draw weeder
This weeder is best suited to dry areas. It consists of a toothed, double-edged blade attached to a long handle. The sharp-toothed blade cuts weeds just below the soil surface.
V-blade hand hoe
This tool, designed for light weeding, consists of a long wooden or bamboo handle joined to a sharpened, V-shaped blade. The blade cuts through soil, cutting weeds just below the soil surface.
Post-harvest Implements
Tubular hand-held maize sheller
This tubular sheller consists of a 7-cm length o steel pipe, 6.25 cm in diameter, with four tapered fins of light sheet metal fitted inside. A, one end the space between fin tips is 26.5 mm, while at the other, the space is 39 mm. To operate, hold the sheller in one hand and insert a dry cob with the other hand. Twist them in opposite directions. The fins detach corn kernels from the cob at the rate of about 20 kg per hour.
Comb-type groundnut stripper
This manually operated machine detaches pods from groundnut vines. The machine consists of a rectangular frame with vertical pegs and a horizontal strip of expanded metal (used in wire fences) fixed on each side in the shape of a comb. Handfuls of groundnut vines are pulled across the comb with force. This strips pods from the vines at a rate of 200-300 kg of pods per hour, with four people working at the same time.
Drum-type groundnut stripper
This stripper removes groundnut pods from green vines. It can be operated easily by one person and is quite effective in minimizing postharvest losses. The device consists of a hollow drum constructed from two metal disks connected by metal rods covered by rubber tubing. The operator cranks the drum handle and beats the groundnut vines on the rotating drum rods. A framed canvas hood keeps pods from scattering. (Canvas hood not shown in illustration at left.)
Hand-operated grain cleaner
Used for removing foreign matter from Bengal gram, wheat, and soybean. This device consists of two metal screens in a frame suspended by rope. About 10 kg of grain is fed into the sieve and the cradle-like cleaner is swung briskly back and forth. Grains fall through the screen but debris remains. The cleaned grain is sieved again to remove finer debris.
Caution
Suspend the cleaner from a sturdy tripod or beam.
Harvesting implements
This sickle is best suited for harvesting wheat and rice crops. It has a wooden handle with a special hand grip shaped to make harvesting easier. The sickle blade, made of serrated carbon steel, is riveted to a 12-mm wide, Ushaped strip which is fixed to the handle. Ten women using naveen sickles can harvest I ha in 1 0 hours.
The khurpa-cum-sickle is a weeder, a hoe, and cutter all in one. The blade is made of carbon steel sheet. The front edge is used for weeding and hoeing, while the side edge is cured and serrated to cut like a sickle. The serrated edge has a cured length of 12 cm, which is about 60 percent of the length of a normal sickle. The handle is made of seasoned seesam wood. The tool weighs 300 g, light enough for continuous use.
Sources of drudgery-reducing implements
Comb-type groundnut stripper
Hand-operated grain cleaner
Draw weeder
Naveen sickle
Drum-type groundnut stripper
Tubular hand-held maize sheller
Dryland weeder
Central Institute of Agricultural
V-blade hand hoe
Engineering (ICAR)
College of Agricultural Engineering
Shri Guru Teg Bahadur Complex
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Bhopal 462003
Coimbatore 641003
Madhya Pradesh, India
Tamil Nadu, India
Multipurpose weeder
Khurpa-cum-sickle
ICAR Research Complex
Division of Agri. Engineering
North-Eastern Hilis Region
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Shillong 793003
Pusa, New Delhi 110012, India
Meghalaya, India
Rotary paddy weeder
M.P. State Department of Agriculture
Putligarh
Bhopal 462001
Madhya Pradesh, India
Source: Centre of Science for Villages, Wardha, Dr. H. S. Biswas, and Dr. M. M. Pandey
<section>Fuel-efficient chulhas</section>
Advantages of fuel efficient chulhas
- Use less fuel
- Reduce fuel collection time
- Reduce cooking time
- Produce less smoke
- Conserve trees
- Allow more dung to be used as fertilizer instead of fuel
- Provide work for local chulha makers
Millions of women in developing countries spend hours each day gathering fuel and still more hours feeding inefficient, smokey chulhas. These ovens harm women's health, add to women's work load, and contribute to deforestation. To combat this problem, many fuel-efficient ovens have been designed and promoted over the years. These improved chulhas all have something in common: they are scientifically designed for better heat flow, which means that maximum heat is taken from the fuel and directed at the cooking pots.
Models
Many different models of improved chulhas are available:
- Pottery-lined mud chulha with or without chimney
- Portable metal chulha
- Portable ceramic-lined metal chulha
- Portable chulha with separate hood chimney
- Pottery-lined chulha without chimney
Installation
Improved chulhas are installed by specially trained, selfemployed chulha makers. Customers are helped to choose the right chulha to meet their needs-depending on family size, kitchen location, type of fuel to be used. Normally, chimneys are recommended for closed, poorly ventilated areas.
Economies
Chulhas are normally made from locally available materials. But, depending on the chulha's size and design-whether the chulha includes a chimney pipe, smoke hood, ceramic or metal components-and taking into account installation charge and available subsidies, an improved chulha can cost from R15 to R150.
If you are interested in having a fuel-efficient improved chulha, contact the block development officer in your area.
Contributor: Mr. S. K. Jagwani
<section>Solar cookers</section>
Households can save money, save labour, and preserve the environment by using the free energy of the sun to cook food. About 60 percent of energy used in rural areas in India is used for cooking. This comes from fuelwood, agricultural waste, animal dung, coal, and kerosene. Aside from the cost of these fuels and the long hours spent collecting them, there is also an environmental cost Demand for fuelwood, for instance, is causing deforestation which leads to floods and erosion.
Why buy a solar cooker?
- Savings-solar cookers use no fuel and are cheap to maintain
- Safety-no fires, no electric shocks, no gas leaks
- Time-saving-cook four items at a time
- Convenience-very little attention is required
- Simplicity-solar cookers are simple to use
- Nutrition-solar cooking preserves the nutritive value of food
- Flavour-food is cooked slowly so flavour is retained
- Cleanliness-no smoke and no soot
Note
Solar cookers do not work well in early morning, late afternoon, or on cloudy days.
There are six main parts to a solar cooker
1 Outer box-made of galvanized iron or aluminium.
2 Inner cooking tray-made of sheet aluminium painted black to absorb the sun's radiation
3 Double glass lid-with a 1-cm air space between the sheets of glass for insulation and a rubber gasket to prevent heat leakage
4 Thermal insulating material- such as glass wool, packed between the outer box and the inner tray
5 Mirror-fixed on the inside of the outer box lid to focus the sun's rays on the cooking containers and cooking tray
6 Cooking containers (with covers)
-of aluminium or stainless steel, painted black on the outside to absorb the sun's radiation
How to use a solar cooker
1 Keep the solar cooker in the open in direct sunlight for at least 45 minutes before loading it with cooking pots. This will reduce the cooking time.
2 From time to time, adjust the position of the cooker and mirror to focus the sun's rays on the cooking pots and cooking tray.
3 Open the glass lid of the solar cooker, place the cooking pots inside and close the lid. As much as possible, keep the lid closed. Opening the lid will cause heat to escape and prolong cooking time.
Precautions
- When cooking is complete, leave the lid open for 10 to 15 minutes to allow the pots to cool down.
- Use cloth potholders when removing pots from the cooker.
- When opening the cooker's glass lid, keep your face and body away to avoid steam burn.
Maintenance
- The outside of the pots and the surface of the inner tray should be painted black from time to time. Avoid scratching the paint.
- When cooking is complete, clean the cooker with a dry cloth. Wipe both sides of the double glass lid and mirror with a soft clean duster before and after using the cooker.
Useful tips
- Cut vegetables into small pieces before cooking.
- Softer cereals and pulses in water before cooking.
- Do not overfill the pots (ingredients and cooking water combined should about reach the middle of the pot).
- Keep containers covered while cooking.
- Before roasting, grease the pot and smear the food with oil. Leave the pot lid off.
- Spices should be added before and after cooking, but not during cooking. Frequent opening of the glass cooker lid and pot lids will result in heat loss and prolonged cooking time.
- Keep the cooking tray and pots painted black.
- To avoid scratching the black paint, remove cooking pots before transporting the cooker.
- Store the cooker closed, in a safe, sheltered place.
Recipes for solar cooker
Alu Methi
Ingredients
250 g small potatoes
salt, chillies, and
(diced into small pieces)
turmeric powder to
100 g fresh methi
taste and 11/2 tbs
groundnut oil
Method
1 Before cooking, clean and cut the methi leaves, apply salt, and leave for one hour.
2 Subsequently, squeeze the water from methi and wash it thoroughly in a strainer.
3 Heat oil and put turmeric powder and chillies in it.
4 Add potatoes and salt, place it in the pot and put it in solar cooker for about 30 minutes.
5 Add methi, uncover the pot, and leave for about 30 minutes.
Cauliflower
Ingredients
200 g cauliflower
salt, turmeric, and
1/2 inch piece of ginger
chillies to taste
1/2 tsp jeera
2 tbs oil
1 tomato
Method
1 Cut cauliflower into small pieces.
2 Heat oil and put in jeera, turmeric powder, chillies, salt, and cauliflower.
3 Pour it into a pot, cover, and place it in the cooker.
4 After about 30 minutes, cut the tomato and add it to the pot. Cook for another 30 minutes.
Chicken curry
Ingredients
250 g chicken
I onion
1 tomato garlic, ginger, dhania powder, jeera powder, chillies, salt and pepper for seasoning
2 tbs oil
1/2 cup (lukewarm) water
1 peeled and finely cut potato
1 tomato either grated or blanched for seasoning and mashed.
Method
1 Mix all the ingredients, except the tomato, and place in a covered pot in the solar cooker for about 40 minutes.
2 Add the tomato.
3 Remove after 10-15 minutes. Mix thoroughly, pass through a sieve, and serve.
Chutney fish
Ingredients
1 pomfret 7-8 cloves garlic half lemon
1/4 tsp turmeric powder salt
2 green chillies coriander leaves, coconut, and roasted gram 1 tbs oil.
Method
1 Clean the fish and make gashes on both sides and smear with salt.
2 Grind garlic, coriander leaves, coconut, roasted gram, chillies, turmeric powder, and salt into a "chutney".
3 Add lemon juice.
4 Cover fish with this chutney and put it in a greased pot or on a greased griddle.
5 Do not cover the container. Place it in solar cooker for about 40 minutes
Note
Remember to preheat for at least 45 minutes.
Note
If mustard fish is to be made, the fish pieces should be marinated in a ground paste of 10 g mustard seeds, 6 green chillies, salt and oil. After marination for 30 minutes, the fish should be kept in the solar cooker uncovered for about 30 minutes.
Dal
Ingredients
150 g arhar dal
350 ml water
10 g ghee
I l/4 tsp salt
1/4 tsp haldi powder
1/4 tsp red chill) powder
1/2 tsp garam masala
Method
1 Pick, wash, and soak for an hour a measured amount of dal.
2 Mix water, dal, ghee, salt, red chill), and haldi powder in the cooking pot.
3 Cover with a lid and keep it in the preheated solar cooker for 30 minutes.
4 When cooked, garnish with garam masala.
Masala chicken
Ingredients 500 g chicken (cut into eight pieces) 250 g onion I pod garlic 1/2 inch piece of ginger 3 tomatoes 1/2 tsp each of dhania powder and jeera powder, salt, turmeric powder and chillies to taste 2 the oil and I lemon
Method
1 Wash the chicken and smear it with salt, turmeric powder, and lemon juice. Leave aside for 30 minutes.
2 Grind onion, garlic, and ginger into a paste and fry in oil until the oil starts leaving the sides of the vessel.
3 Add jeera powder, dhania powder, salt, chillies, and turmeric powder.
4 Place chicken in the solar cooker container and pour the cooked masala on top.
5 Add sliced tomatoes.
6 Leave it in the solar cooker for about 40 minutes.
Plain rice
Ingredients
1 cup rice
2 cups lukewarm water
Method
1 Wash and soak the rice for 1 5 minutes.
2 Put the rice and water in the cooking pot.
3 Put the covered pot in the solar cooker for about 40 minutes.
Rice and Dal Khichri
Ingredients
Method
1 cup rice
1 Wash and soak rice and dal together for 60 minutes. Drain.
3 cups water
2 Heat oil and fly ginger, pepper, and jeera lightly.
1/4 cups moong
3 Add rice and dal and put it into a dish. Add lukewarm water. Add salt to taste.
dal
4 Cover it and leave it in the cooker for about 30 minutes.
a small piece
5 Stir it and leave it in solar cooker for another30 minutes.
of finely cut
ginger, jera,
salt, and
pepper for
seasoning
1 tbs ghee
<section>Biogas as a rural energy source</section>
Composition
Biogas contains 55-75 percent methane, plus hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide. The percentage of inflammable methane gas depends on the raw material used to make the biogas.
Biogas is a mixture of gases produced by the chemical decomposition of organic material such as animal dung. Consider installing a biogas plant. Animal dung, human waste, and waste plant material can be converted to clean, cheap fuel for cooking and lighting. And, the byproduct is good fertilizer. Biogas plants, also known as digesters or Gobar gas plants, can be installed to meet the needs of individual families on very small sites (3 m x 2 m), or for groups of several families.
Raw materials
- Animal wastes, such as dung of cows, elephants, horses, goats, poultry, and pigs
- Plant wastes, such as husks, straw, dry leaves, weeds, vegetable skins
- Human excrete
- Industrial and domestic wastes, such as billow dust, pulp mill effluent, fruit and vegetable wastes
How it works
The main parts of a biogas plant are the digester, mixing pit, inlet and outlet pipes, outlet tank, gas holder, and gas pipe.
1 Organic material and water are mixed thoroughly in a mixing pit.
2 The mixture flows through the inlet pipe into the digester tank.
3 As the organic material decomposes (in the absence of oxygen), biogas is produced.
4 Gas collects in the gas holder. This gas can be used for fuel.
5 Decomposed material in the digester becomes light. It passes through the outlet pipe to the outlet tank. The material is good quality manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
Size
The size of your biogas plant should depend on your family's fuel requirements, and the availability of dung and other organic material. The table below will help determine the right size biogas plant for your homestead.
Capacity of plant (gas production per day in m^3)
Daily requirement of dung (kg)
Approximate number of cattle required for
Cooking for num ber of persons
Community-size biogas plants are also available which can serve the needs of several families.
Site selection
- Install the biogas plant on an elevated, open, and dry site which is exposed to sunshine most of the day.
- It should be near the kitchen and the animal sheds.
- The groundwater level should be at least two metres below the surface.
- The biogas plant must be at least 15 metres away from drinking water wells and hand pumps.
- Where the sanitary latrine is linked to the biogas plant, the water seal of the latrine must be at least 30 centimeters above the upper level of the biogas plant's slurry outlet pipe.
Cost of installation
The cost of installation depends on the type and size of plant installed. The table below shows the approximate cost of installation of various models at various capacities (assuming a 40-day retention period):
Capacity of plant (m')
KVIC^1 model
Deenbandhu model
Pragati model
Khadi and Village Industries Corporation
The national government provides facilities for promotion, construction, service, and repair of biogas plants. Substantial subsidies are also available through the National Programme on Biogas Development. As well, both commercial and cooperative banks provide credit, without land mortgage, for installation of family-size biogas plants. Repayment periods range between 5 and 7 years.
Installation
Biogas plants are installed by self-employed workers specially trained in the construction, installation, maintenance, and repair of biogas plants.
For more information contact the block development office in your area.
Contributor: Mr. S. K. Jagwani
<section>Efficient fuel energy utilisation</section>
Energy for cooking is a basic requirement of daily life. Women in rural areas must travel long distances to collect fuel for cooking. Then they spend long hours cooking in smoke-filled kitchens. Here are some ways to make best use of fuel and minimize cooking time.
Proper pots
- Use round-bottomed pots on wood-burning chulhas. More heat can be transferred to these as compared to flatbottomed pots.
- The diameter of the pot must be 1.5- to 2-times bigger than the diameter of the chulha opening.
- Clean the pot bottom before use.
Fuel-saving cooking techniques
- Cook with the minimum quantity of water. If more water is required during cooking, add hot water if possible.
- Keep the pot or pan covered with a plate or pot lid while cooking.
- Soak pulses, rice, etc., in water for at least half an hour before cooking. Hard-coated legumes, such as lima beans, gram, and cowpea, should be soaked overnight.
- Do not allow flames to come out the chulha's fire door.
- When cooking is complete, quickly remove unused fuel from the fire chamber and douse the fuel with water. This wet fuel can be sun-dried and used again.
Remember to cover your pot.
Smart fuel use
- Chop wood into small pieces, about 3 cm x 5 cm x 10 cm.
- Do not over-feed the fire. Flames should not escape the fire box. This is a waste of fuel.
- Use dry fuel. Otherwise, energy is wasted removing moisture when the fuel is burned.
Place wood pieces at angles across the grate (if the chulha has a grate) to allow air circulation.
Stack wood pieces across each other for better circulation.
If you are using long fuel sticks which protrude from the fire box, keep them horizontal or tilted toward the centre of the grate by propping up their outside ends with a brick.
When using light fuels such as twigs and straw along with wood, bum the wood first to achieve a high temperature. Add the light fuels next for their good combustion.
Dung should be used for composting. However, if some part of your dung must be used for fuel, prepare fuel rods by coating dung over long sticks. After they are dried in the sun, these fuel rods burn more efficiently and produce less smoke than either wood or dung burned separately.
<section>Water management for farm and home</section>
<section>Safe drinking water</section>
Some 1.5 million children under the age of five die in India every year because of water-borne diseases. While most people know that bad water causes sickness, relatively few know that water carries diarrhoea, cholera, and stomach disorders. Rural women are the principal collectors, storekeepers, and users of water at home and in communities. Therefore, they must know how to ensure that the water they use is safe.
What is safe water?
Water is safe when there is nothing in it that can cause a disease. Safe drinking water must be:
- Free from harmful germs (bacteria, parasites, viruses, etc.)
- Free from harmful chemicals (such as pesticides) and foreign matter (such as dirt)
- Pleasant to taste or tasteless
- Colourless or crystal clear
- Odourless
Importance of safe water
Not all water is safe for human use-drinking and cooking. Contaminated water can be dangerous to health. It is a source of deadly diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastroenteritis, typhoid, jaundice, polio, guinea worm infestation, worm infection, and other health problems.
What causes contamination in water sources?
Human excreta-faeces and urine Animal excreta-dung and urine Bathing, washing, and cleaning activities Industrial effluent from mines, mills, refineries, etc. (Dead fish seen frequently in water might indicate the presence of chemicals.) Wastes from cities Improper garbage and waste disposal Pesticides and fertilizers washed into rivers and groundwater Dead and decaying animals and plants, especially in stagnant water Soil erosion
Due to these pollutants, water becomes unsafe for domestic use and, therefore, unsafe for drinking.
How to recognize unsafe water
Unsafe water has various harmful chemicals (such as iron and fluorides), germs, and waste materials. Harmful chemicals and germs cannot be seen with the naked eye but can cause unpleasant odour or taste.
Note
To be sure, get your water tested. Take a sample of water for testing to your local water-testing laboratory.
Note
Wells should be situated away from sources of contamination.
Water from hand pumps can become contaminated in the rainy season.
Prevent surface water from entering wells.
Keep washing areas and sources of contamination downstream from your water source.
Unsafe water has:
- unpleasant, biker or salty taste might be due to excess of iron and various salts like chlorides.
- foul smell-might be due to gases, germs, sewage, and/or algae.
- cloudy or turbid appearance might be due to excess of mud, clay, salt, iron, decaying organic matter, dyes, etc.
In general:
- running water is safer than stagnant water.
- groundwater is safer than surface water.
- covered wells and hand pumps are safer than open wells, tanks, and ponds.
- tubewells are safer than open wells.
- deep wells are safer than shallow wells.
Source: Notional Drinking Water Mission, Government of India
<section>Maintenance of community water sources</section>
Any water source is a valuable property of the entire village. Therefore, it is everyone's responsibility to guard the water source from contamination.
Taps and water pumps
- Keep the tap and pump and the surrounding area clean.
- Make a drain to lead excess water away from the tap or pump.
- Excess water can be used to water a field or kitchen garden, or can be drained into a soakage pit. This prevents the surrounding area from getting muddy.
- Clean drains regularly.
- Repair cracks in concrete. Repair cracked or damaged pipes promptly.
- Protect the water source, piping system, and storage tank from contamination by people, animals, agricultural and industrial waste.
- Prevent children from putting their lips on the tap or pump when drinking water.
- Bathe and wash clothes at least 15 m away from the tap or hand pump.
- Make a fence around the tap or hand pump to keep cattle and other animals away.
- If it is necessary to water cattle from the pump, make a special cemented trough some distance (about 15 m) away from the pump.
- Turn off taps after use. Do not waste water.
Wells
- Sink wells in good soil at least 15 m away from possible sources of contamination, such as cesspools or insanitary privies.
- Fill in all hollows, rat holes, foul tanks, cesspits, etc., near the well.
- The site should be sufficiently high to prevent water from flowing toward and seeping into the well.
- Provide a parapet wall around the top of the well about 1 m high to prevent surface water from entering the well. The top of the well wall should slope (should not be horizontal) to discourage people from sitting or washing clothes on it, and thereby contaminating the water.
- Cut down or trim trees and vegetation close by so that leaves and bird droppings do not fall into the well. Tree roots should not be allowed to sprout from the lining of the well.
- Cover the well to prevent leaves and dust from blowing inside.
Prevent sparrows and pigeons from making their nests in the lining of the well.
Provide a proper washing and bathing place at a distance from the well and preferably at a lower level than the well so that waste water flows away. Waste water seeping into the ground close to the well can contaminate the well water.
- Provide a cemented area around the well at least 2 m in diameter. Make it slope away from the well so that surface washings flow away from the well and not into it.
- The buckets of individual users might be dirty and contaminate the well water. So, discourage users from lowering their own buckets into the well.
- Attach a strong bucket with a chain or rope to the well permanently for public use. Keep this bucket clean.
Tanks and ponds
If possible, do not use water from tanks and ponds for drinking. Use well water instead. If you must use water from tanks or ponds, try to follow these guidelines.
Select sites with good surroundings with no insanitary conditions or bore-hole latrines in the vicinity.
Ensure that banks are properly sloped and planted with grass.
The tank or pond should be ringed by an embankment to prevent water from flowing in.
Do not allow surface drains to empty into the tank or pond.
Fence the tank or pond to keep away cattle.
Keep one tank for drinking water and another for other activities, such as washing, bathing, and watering animals.
Draw water without going into the tank. Draw water from the steps or by means of a hand pump.
Plant trees only at a distance so as not to attract cattle and bird droppings.
Remove weeds and algae regularly.
Clean the tank or pond regularly and re-excavate when dry.
This will increase its capacity as well.
Do not allow any commercial activities, such as jute steeping in the tank.
Source: National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India, Mr. Yash Pal Bedi and Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity, Government of India
<section>Management of drinking water for the household</section>
You must ensure that the water you use is safe. Take care to prevent contamination from the time water is collected to the time it is used.
Hands are a major source of water contamination. So, do not put your hands in the drinking water and do not let drinking water splash or pour over your hands during collection, transportation, or storage.
Water container
- Clean your water containers with ash or cleaning powder. Do not use mud as it contains harmful bacteria which can contaminate your water.
- Do not use containers which previously contained pesticides, chemicals, petrol, or other poisonous substances.
Collecting water
- Avoid collecting stagnant wafer from ponds. Collect water from wells rather than from surface sources. If, however, this cannot be avoided, strain the water through two layers of cloth. Allow the water to stand for a short while. The water can then be purified with bleaching powder or by boiling. (See Safe drinking water and Some simple ways to purify drinking water.)
Clean your hands thoroughly before filling the water container.
- Do not lower your container into the well. Use the community bucket fixed the well for this purpose.
- Do not place this community bucket on the ground.
- Do not walk down the steps of the well (in the case of a step well) to collect water. This spreads guinea worm. (See Maintenance of community water sources.)
Transporting water
- Carry drinking water in a covered container.
- Make sure that the cover is clean.
Storing water at home
- Keep the water container covered.
- Keep the water container on a high platform out of reach of children and animals. Clay pots and other porous containers must be raised slightly off the ground to prevent contamination.
- If possible, use a container with a tap near the base. This prevents contamination from hands and utensils dipping into the container. It also allows sediment to settle to the bottom.
- If possible, empty and clean household water storage containers daily.
- Use some simple methods to purify your water before use. (See Some simple ways to purify drinking water.)
- Use a clean, long-handled ladle to take water from the container.
Sources: National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India, Mr. Yash Pal Bedi and Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity, Government of India
<section>Some simple ways to purify drinking water</section>
Drinking water is not always safe. Sometimes it can carry debilitating diseases, even death. To prevent infection by waterborne diseases, follow the simple techniques given below.
Boiling
Boil all drinking water for at least 10 minutes. Boiling kills most of the harmful organisms present in water. In case boiling is a problem-because of high fuel costs or lack of fuel-boil at least the water for children, older people, and sick people, especially during the rainy season. To improve the taste of boiled water, stir it vigorously with a clean spoon or pour the water from a height, from one container to another several times.
Container
Water quality
Brass, copper
very good
Plastic, glass
good
Steel, iron
not good
Tin, hindalium
bad
Mud, aluminium
very bad
Copper or brass vessels
If possible, store water in copper or brass vessels.
Copper and brass inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Solar disinfection
1 Leave water containers for some time so that heavy dust and dirt particles settle to the bottom.
2 Pour the water into transparent plastic, coloured glass, or blue-tinted glass vessels or bottles. As you pour, be very careful not to disturb the sediment.
3 Cover the vessels and cap the bottles.
4 Expose them to strong direct sunlight for at least 90 minutes. If possible, put the vessels in the sun early in the morning and leave them out until late afternoon. This destroys bacteria that cause several common diseases. Keep the vessels slightly away from each other for direct radiation.
This solar-disinfected water can be used directly or kept overnight to cool.
Three-pot system
Unsafe, dirty water can be made much safer simply by storing it for at least 24 hours Within that time most of the dirt will sink to the bottom.
1 Take two big pots and one small pot. Use the big pots for fetching water on alternate days.
2 Allow the water in the first pot to stand for 24 hours.
3 Then, pour the clear top water into the small Pot for drinking.
4 Use the remaining water for washing.
5 Clean and refill the first pot when it is empty.
6 Again, allow it to stand for 24 hours.
7 Use the second pot in the same way as the first. In this way, each day's drinking water has been left to stand for at least 24 hours.
Cloth filters
Cloth water filters can be used to strain insects, worm larvae and other comparatively large particles from water. Make a simple two-layer filter using cloth of two different colours so that you know which side to place on top (to receive unclean water). Use tightly woven cloth. Wash the filters after each use. This prevents organisms and debris caught in the filter from recontaminating the water. You can also buy readymade, cheap plastic filters.
Charcoal filters
Charcoal water filters can be used to remove suspended material and harmful bacteria in polluted water to a level satisfactory for human consumption.
Materials
- Gravel and sand for filtration.
- Charcoal to remove colour, odour, taste, and certain dissolved impurities
Construction
1 Make a number of small holes in the bottom of a galvanized iron or steel drum, clay pitcher, or ordinary steel drum. This will be the water-filter container.
2 Fill the pitcher or drum with a 25-cm layer of gravel.
3 Place a layer of coarse sand on top of the gravel, up to a height of about 25 cm.
4 Cover with charcoal.
5 Cover the charcoal with a 510-cm thick layer of gravel to prevent the charcoal pieces from floating in the water.
Chemical disinfection
Chlorine in one form or another is the most common chemical used for disinfection of water It is normally effective against bacteria commonly associated with water-borne diseases It is, however, less effective against certain cysts, ova, and viruses
Chlorine is supplied as a gas, in solution, or as a solid. Probably the easiest form of sterilization of emergency water supplies is by use of either calcium hypochlorite (ordinary bleaching powder) or sodium hypochlorite (available as a liquid).
Notes
- Wash the materials before filling the filter container.
- About three-quarters of the drum should be filled with the filter material. Place this water-filter container on top of another iron or steel drum or clay pitcher, fitted with a tap. Pour water in the top. Filtered water is obtained through the tap at the bottom. The charcoal should be replaced after six months. The sand and gravel can be washed and reused.
- You are advised to add a few drops of chlorine solution (5.25 percent) to disinfect each jug of water.
Chlorination at home
Make a chlorine solution by mixing 1 cup of laundry bleach in 3 cups of water. Add 3 drops of this solution to 1 litre of water and allow the water to sit for 30 minutes. Alternatively, you can treat water using chlorine tablets which are available in the market.
Chlorination of community wells
Continuous disinfection of well water can be done using low-cost devices called "pot chlorination "
Single-pot chlorinator-for larger wells
1 Take a 12- 15 litre earthen pot.
2 Make two holes 0.6 cm in diameter in the middle of the pot.
3 Pour into the pot a moist mixture of 1.5 kg bleaching powder and 3 kg coarse sand. (The mixture should occupy the volume of the pot below the level of the holes).
4 Cover the mouth of the pot with polythene.
5 Lower the pot into the well with a rope so that it remains 60 cm below the surface of the water.
This unit can chlorinate wells holding 9,000-13,000 litres of water with a withdrawal rate of 900-1,300 litres per day (sufficient for 40-60 people per day) for a period of at least one week. The treated water has a chlorine content of 0.2-0.8 parts per million.
Double-pot chlorinator-for small household wells
Use of a single-pot chlorinator in a small well (4,000 litres of water with a withdrawal rate of 360-450 litres per day) will result in over-chlorination. Instead, use a double-pot chlorinator.
1 Take two cylindrical pots-one to fit inside the other.
Make a 1 cm diameter hole in the side of the smaller pot, about 8 cm below the rim.
3 Fill this pot to just below the hole with a moist mixture of 1 kg bleaching powder and 2 kg coarse sand.
4 Make a hole 1 cm in diameter, about 4 cm from the bottom of the big pot.
5 Put the small pot inside the big pot.
6 Cover the mouth of both pots with polythene.
7 Lower the unit into the well with a rope so that it hangs 1 m below the water level. This chlorinator gives 0.3-0.5 parts per million of chlorine over a period of 2-3 weeks.
Sources: National Drinking Water
Mission, Government of India, Mr.
Yas Pal Bedi, and Directorate of
Advertising and Visual Publicity,
Government of India
Calculating volume
Use this formula to calculate the volume of water in your well:
3 x radius of the well (cm) x radius of the well (cm) x depth of water (cm) = cubic cm
<section>Use of indigenous plants for cleaning water</section>
Farm women in India possess a wealth of indigenous knowledge. Women in some parts of India, for instance, use various plants to make muddy water clear.
Moringa oleifera drumstick, sainjana, sahjana
Moringa oleifera can make muddy water clear in 1-2 hours.
Dosage
Use about 30 seeds in 40 litres of water. Use more seeds to clear very muddy water. Dosage can also depend upon the condition of the water source and the season. ( l 1/2 seeds per litre of water for very muddy water and 1/4 of a seed in one litre of water for less turbid water.)
Method of preparation
1 Remove the wing and coat of the seed.
2 Crush the white kernel in a mortar.
3 Mix the powdered kernel with a small amount of potable water in a glass and stir vigorously for 5 minutes.
4 Pour this suspension through a tea strainer or muslin cloth into turbid water.
5 Keep stirring the water slowly for about 10 minutes.
Strychnos potatorum nirmall The ripened seeds of Strychnos potatorum can be used to make a natural flocculent for cleaning muddy water-dirt particles flock together, creating larger clumps which can be easily removed.
Dosage
Use about 1.5 mg of seed extract per litre of muddy water.
Method
1 Crush ripened seeds into a thick paste using clean water.
2 Add the paste to muddy water and stir.
3 Let it stand.
4 Strain through muslin or pour off the clear water into a clean vessel. Be careful not to disturb the sediment.
(The same results can be achieved by rubbing the seed on the inner surface of an earthen water vessel before filling.)
Semecarpus anacardium bhela, bhilawa
This seed is used in Central India as a substitute for Strychnos potatorum. Rub the seeds on a stone and make a thick paste. Mix it with muddy water. Follow the same procedure as for Strychnos potatorum.
Vetieria zizanoides khus, vetiver grass
Take a clay jar with a few tiny holes in the bottom. Lay wiry roots of the rhizome at the bottom of the jar. Water filtered through this layer of roots is not only cleaner but also has a pleasant smell. (Practiced in South Kerala.)
Tylophora indica jangli-pikvan
The dry roots of this plant improve the quality of drinking water. The roots can be placed directly in water or powdered and stirred in.
Limnanthemum cristatum This herb is grown in rainwater harvesting tanks in some parts of Rajasthan for cleaner water and pleasant taste.
Source: Consortium for Rural Technologies (CORT)
<section>Soakage pit for proper disposal of waste water</section>
Note
Do not use your soak pit for disposing of waste water from latrines.
Day-to-day household tasks, such as cleaning, bathing, and washing clothes, produce waste water. Stagnant pools of water around houses, in the streets, and in choked drains are a health hazard.
Besides producing bad odour and making areas muddy, stagnant pools become breeding places for mosquitoes.
Kitchen gardens are a good place to dispose of waste water. However, if you don't have space for a garden, building a soak pit is a practical, effective alternative.
Soak pits work like this: waste water gets dispersed in the specially designed pit and is absorbed in the subsoil, while pieces of solid waste naturally decompose. Since decomposition takes place in a sealed pit, no foul smell is produced.
Materials required Stones (large, medium, small): 1 cart load Plastic or metal perforated plate (15 cm diameter): 1 PVC pipe (30 mm diameter) 75 cm - 1 m Cement: 2 kg Bricks: 12 Polythene or gunny bags: 4 Sand: 2 cubic ft Masonry and labour charges (digging, fitting, and finishing construction of the pit): 1 day
Construction
Select a 1 sq m area close to the drain outlet, and 30 to 60 cm away from the nearest wall of the house.
- Dig a pit 1m x 1m x 1m x.
- Fill the pit with big stones (coconut size) up to 30 cm, followed by medium stones (guava size), from 30 to 60 cm, and small stones (wainut size) from 60 to 90 cm.
Note
In case the distance between the drain outlet and the soak pit is greater than the recommended distance of 30 to 60 cm, the length of the drain pipe has to be increased accordingly.
Note
During heavy rains, cover the trap with a plastic sheet to stop the rainwater from draining in.
Choose a drain pipe (PVC, bamboo or any used rubber tube or hose) 5 mm in diameter. Cut it to a length of about 75 cm
Make a hole 3 cm in diameter at one end of this pipe.
Construct a brick-lined trap below the drain outlet of the house, install a perforated plate and a drain pipe running down to the soak pit.
The principal/function of the trap is to keep solid deposits, rainwater, and mud out of the soak pit. You can also use a clay pot with holes in the bottom as a trap.
- Install the drain pipe so that the end with the 3 cm hole reaches the centre of the pit and the perforation faces downwards.
- Cover the pit with a polythene sheet (fertilizer bags or cement bags). Make sure that the cover stretches at least 15 cm beyond the sides of the pit. Spread earth on this cover and pack it until the surface of the pit is level with the ground. Make the finished surface look the same as the surrounding area.
Maintenance
Daily-Remove solid deposits held in the trap and flush a litre of water through the trap to clear any blockage.
Periodic-In time, your soak pit might become choked. Excess moisture on top of the soak pit is - an indication of choking. When choking occurs, dig out the soak pit and remove the stones and debris. Wash the stones and refill them in the pit.
For an average family, a well maintained soak pit will last for at least five years.
Contributor: Dr. N. Kamalammo
<section>Efficient use of irrigation water</section>
Note
Different size jaltriptis can be made to suit your needs.
Rural women travel long distances for fuel, food, and fodder. This work can pose great hardship, especially in arid and semiarid regions where trees and crops are scarce. Irrigation is an obvious solution, but providing enough water to nurture crops and trees on dry, sandy soils is difficult. There are techniques and tools, however, which can help.
Jaltripti
Growing trees is difficult in arid and semi-arid regions, especially in high percolation sandy soils. A simple device called a Jaltripti can reduce the frequency of waterings and reduce the total amount of water needed, while ensuring a constant regulated supply of moisture to young trees.
Construction
The jaltripti consists of a double-walled earthen pot. It is made by placing one pot inside a larger pot. See box at left.
The base (but not the sides) of the inner pot is coated with paint, cement, or coal tar to keep water from passing through.
Method
- Dig a hole and bury the jaltripti up to the rim of its outer pot.
- Fill the inner pot with good soil.
- Transplant the sapling into the inner pot.
- Fill the space between the two pots with water.
- Cover this circular water reservoir with polythene sheet to reduce evaporation. Do not cover the sapling.
- Fill the jaltripti with water every week or so, depending on the season and the size of the pot.
Pitcher method
The pitcher method makes good use of water. It is best suited to dry areas with light soils, but can be adapted for use anywhere. It is particularly useful for growing melons, gourds, pumpkins, and other trailing plants.
- Dig holes 70 cm wide and 70 cm deep.
- Add 18 kg of composted manure to each hole.
- Add 18 kg of soil to each hole and mix well.
- Bury an earthen pot with the mouth of the pot at ground level in the middle of the bed.
- Fill the pot with water up to the brim.
- Cover the pot.
- Plant four seeds around the pot.
- Refill with water whenever the water level decreases.
Circular gardens
Circular gardens are best suited to drought areas and where land is scarce. They use little water.
Method
- Dig holes 30 cm in diameter and 30 cm deep.
- Build bunds around the rims of the holes.
- Plant seedlings inside the holes.
- Water close to the stem of the plant.
Sprinkler irrigation
This method is used for medium and large farms. It is more efficient on coarse texture soils, such as sand and sandy loams, which have low moisture-holding capacity. It is especially useful on undulating land and sand dunes.
The water is sprayed on the crop at a controlled rate. It can be used for almost all crops and is very popular for cash crops and some orchard crops.
Spray irrigation is advantageous on some soils with salinity problems. It leaches salt effectively, and promotes seedling emergence and growth.
The spray cools the crops during high temperatures and controls frosts during freezing temperatures.
Some sprinkler systems are portable. A system costing Rs 1520,000 to install can irrigate 5-10 ha in one crop season.
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation involves the slow application of water, drop by drop, to the root-zone of a crop.
Water is used very economically, since losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation are reduced to the minimum.
This system is suited to arid regions. Growing orchards on saline soil is possible using the drip system.
Sources: Ms. Chitra Mani, Mr C. V. Sheshadri, and CDRT Allahabad
<section>Fish production</section>
<section>Integrated fish farming</section>
Raising fish in combination with pigs, poultry, cattle, or ducks can raise family income.
Since animal waste makes good fertilizer for fish ponds, and since 60 percent of the cost of fish farming goes for feed, integrating livestock and fish farming makes sense. Try a combination of different animals and crops that best suit your area. Grow vegetables and other crops on the pond dykes. Use animal waste to run a biogas plant and then feed the biogas slurry to fish-it is better than raw waste as fish-pond fertilizer. The goal is efficiency and higher profits.
Possible combinations include:
- Fish-cattle
- Fish-duck
- Fish-poultry
- Fish-pig
- Fish-goat or -sheep
- A combination of fish with two or more types of livestock (e.g., poultry pigfish)
Poultry- fish culture
Deep litter system
Between 500 and 600 birds will produce enough litter for a 1 ha fish pond. Using this system, 4,000-5,000 kg of fish 60,000 eggs and 1,200 kg of chicken can be produced annually.
- Locate the poultry house near the fish pond.
- Construct the poultry house floor out of brick, concrete, or hard soil.
Cover the floor to a depth of 15 cm with chopped straw, dry leaves, hay, groundnut shells, broken maize stocks, or sawdust.
Provide 0.3 to 0.4 sq m per bird.
Keep the birds on the litter to collect their droppings.
Stir the bed regularly.
Keep adding more organic matter to maintain the required depth of 15 cm.
If the litter becomes damp, add superphosphate or lime to keep it dry.
After 10-12 months, the litter is fully built up and its nitrogen content has reached about 3 percent. This litter can be used as fertilizer for your fish pond.
Store the litter in a dry place and apply it to the pond at the rate of 15-20 kg/ha per day.
Slatted floor system
Build a poultry house on stilts over the pond. Build the floor out of slatted bamboo or slatted wood so that the bird droppings fall directly into the pond. The birds can be kept in cages or allowed to move freely inside the poultry house. pond
Note
Do not apply litter when algal blooms appear at the surface of the pond.
<section>Composite fish culture</section>
Fish ponds are a valuable source of protein and ready cash. Maximize production from your fish pond by raising combinations of between 3 and 6 complementary fish species which make best use of your pond's resources.
Pond preparation New ponds should be dug from clay loam soils. Avoid digging the pond on sandy soil.
- Narrow, rectangular ponds are easiest to manage. Allow for 0.2-0.4 ha in surface area and sloping in depth from 1.5 m to 2.5 m.
- Build the pond where it will be exposed to direct sunlight. Shade will reduce the pond's productivity.
- Apply lime to prevent fish diseases and parasites.
Manuring
Use raw cow dung at the rate of 10-15 tonnes per ha per year.
Add about 2.5 tonnes to the pond 15 days before stocking and the remaining quantity in 1 0- 11 monthly instalments. (If mahua has been applied to exterminate weed fish, forego the first application of cow dung.)
- Construct a bamboo crib to hold cow dung. Keep the crib filled with cow dung up to the water line.
- Defer application of cow dung for a few days if algal blooms appear and water becomes green.
- Add enough cow dung to make the water greenish-brown. This colour indicates there is plenty of natural food in the water.
Cow dung required (tonnes/ha/year)
Newly constructed pond
5.6 to 6.6
Pond which has been in use for some time
5.0 to 5.6
Old pond
0.7 to 0.5
Lime dosage
Highly acidic
2,000 kg/ha
Near neutral
500 kg/ha
Mildly alkaline
200 kg/ha
Highly alkaline
no lime
Use litmus paper to test your pond's acidity.
Stocking
Note
Variation in pH is harmful to fish. Lime your pond one week before manuring.
Fish fingerlings for stocking can be purchased from government fish farms or from private growers. Stock in October-November.
About 10-cm-long fingerlings should be used for stocking. A pond with 2-3 m depth should be stocked at 6,000-10,000 fingerlings per ha. Depending upon the availability of fingerlings, the pond can be stocked with 3, 4, or 6 species in the following ratios:
Note
Fingerlings should be transported in cool weather. In hot weather, transport in the early morning or evening.
Species combinations and their stocking ratios
3-species
4-species
6-species
Catla
Rohu
Mrigal
Common carp
Silver carp
Grass carp
Introduction of fingerlings
Feeding
Fish eat tiny plants and animals zooplankton and phytopinkton-which float in the water. Your goal is to maximize the growth of this natural food through proper management, which includes fertilizing the pond. Your fish will also need food supplements of oil cake (e.g., mustard or groundnut oil cake)
Grass-eating fish, such as grass carp, will need a regular supply of weeds.
Part of the feed mixture can be broadcast at a fixed place. The rest of the feed can be made into a dough ball suspended in the water just below the surface.
To feed grass carp, suspend aquatic weeds on a frame made of bamboo and rope.
Weed clearing
Weeds take up nutrients, harbour harmful insects, consume oxygen, and block sunlight. They must be removed from the pond.
- Floating weeds, such as water hyacinth and pistia, can be removed by hand.
- Lighter floating weeds, such as spirodella, lemna and wolfia, can be removed by dragging a rope or small-mesh net across the pond surface.
- Underwater weeds can be pulled up by dragging a length of weighted barbed wire Gr chain along the bottom of the pond
Rake your pond
Rake the bottom of your pond periodically to release nutrients. This can be done by dragging bricks along the bottom.
Note
After applying mahua, wait before introducing your new species. Wait longer if a heavy dose of mahua cake is given. The minimum waiting period is 24 hours.
Undesirable fish
Eradicate predatory or "weed" fish with mahua oil cake. Broadcast soaked mahua oil cake uniformly over the pond at the rate of 2-2.5 tonnes per hectare of pond surface, with a pond depth of 1 metre. Mahua oil cake is available in the market. Fish killed by mahua oil cake can be eaten.
Problems and solutions
If water level drops due to excessive evaporation
- add water to the pond.
If fish come to the surface with their snouts protruding for air (moat obvious
- stop applying manure and stop supplementary feeding.
- add fresh water to the pond. ing from the water, gulp
- beat the surface of the water with bamboo poles.
In the early morning)
- cut banana trunks into small bits and scatter them on the hand surface to help reduce acidity.
- pull a drag-net through the pond several times for aeration.
- apply potassium permanganate at 1 to 2 mg per litre.
- apply lime at 300 to 500 kg per ha of pond surface.
If algal bloom forms
- release silver carp yn the pond, 500 per ha of pond surface.
(Average weight of silver carp should be 100 9.)
If birds are eating your fish
- install scarecrows or other bird-scaring devices.
If your fish are being taken
- watch your pond more closely.
- float branches in the pond. This will prevent netting.
lf fish become diseased
- net out the diseased fish and have them examined at the nearest government fisheries office for possible remedial measures.
Harvesting
Harvest the fish after one year when they have reached a marketable size of 0.6-1 kg If
the pond is threatened by flood, drought, or disease, consider harvesting early When netting, start from the deep end of the pond and drag the net slowly toward the shallow end
Cost and return from a one-hectare pond
Oil cake (3,000 kg @ Rs 5/kg)
Rice bran (3,500 kg @ Rs 2 50 /kg)
Labour (2 people) 360 person-days
Interest 15%
Rs 35,592
Income
Sales of 4,000 kg of fish @ Rs 22/kg
Rs 88,000
Net Profit
(Rs 88,000 - Rs 35,600)
Rs 52,400
Sources: Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay and Dr. V. R. P. Sinha and Nirmal K Thakur
<section>Paddy - fish culture</section>
Fish raising and paddy growing make a profitable on-farm combination. The system described here produces two crops of paddy tall variety in the wet season and a higher yielding variety In the dry season and a single crop of fish.
Fish species mix and stocking rate
Stock rohu, catla, mrigal, or minor carp at the rate of 4,0006,000 per ha. The species mix should include 25 percent surface feeders, preferably catla, which are readily available; 30 percent column feeders, such as rohu; and 45 percent bottom feeders, such as mrigal or beta. Prawns also grow well in paddy-fish culture plots.
Fingerlings can be obtained from government fish centres or from local private dealers. Stock the fish when the water level rises over the paddy growing area (July-August).
Selection of site
Low-lying areas with high rainfall (above 800 mm) are well suited to paddy-fish culture.
Trench design and construction
Perimeter type
Place the paddy growing area in the centre. The paddy growing area should slightly slope on all sides toward a perimeter trench.
Central pond type
In this design, the paddy growing area drains into a central pond.
Lateral trench type
Dig a trench at one end of a moderately sloping paddy field. Or dig two trenches or ponds at opposing ends of the paddy growing area. The total water area should be about one-third the land area.
The actual shape of plots can vary according to land contours and topography.
Note
High yielding varieties should not be grown in the wet season. The water level maintained for the high yielding varieties is too low for fish cultivation (2.5-3.0 cm).
Note
To protect your new rice plants, use bamboo traps to remove crabs.
Fish feeding and management
For better growth, feed the fish mustard oil cake and rice bran (one part oil cake to one part rice bran) at the rate of 2-3 per cent of fish body weight.
- Feed from bamboo trays each day.
- If available, feed shelled mollusc meat to your prawns.
- Periodically catch fish to monitor their health and growth.
- Test the pond water with litmus paper. If it is acidic, add lime at the rate of 100 kg per hectare to the trenches or ponds only (not to the paddy growing area).
Fish weigh 2-3 g at the time of stocking and 200-500 g at harvest.
Paddy varieties
- Choose a deep-water paddy variety for the wet season.
- Choose a short-duration, higher-yielding variety for the dry season crop.
Paddy preparation
Wet season crop
- Clean the plot.
- Add cow-dung (4,000-5,000 kg/ha). Use sewage water if available.
- Plough the plot thoroughly.
- After first rain (May-June), sow deep-water paddy seed.
Dry season crop
- After harvest (December-January), clean the plot once again for the second crop.
- Plough the plot repeatedly.
- Apply basal fertilizer during final harrowing at the rate of 10 kg N. 30 kg P2O5, and 30 kg K2O per ha. If available, apply sewage water in place of NPK.
- Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill. Keep 20-30 cm space between hills and 20 cm space between the rows.
- Irrigate with freshwater from adjacent ponds or trenches or with sewage water.
- Keep 5-7 cm of water in the paddy plot.
- Remove weeds at the time of tillering.
- Apply the second dose of fertilizer at tittering stage (30 kg N/ha) and the third dose before panicle initiation (development) stage (15 kg N/ha) or add sewage water, if available, from tillering to panicle development (booting) stage.
- Irrigate the plot as needed.
Fish harvesting
Around the time of the deep-water paddy harvest, when the plot gradually dries up (December-January), the fish take shelter in the trench or pond. Fish harvesting should start shortly after the first paddy harvest. Fish that have reached 200-500 g should be taken out at fortnightly intervals by drag netting. In time, the water in the trenches and ponds will be used up to irrigate the second paddy crop. Remove the remaining fish by hand.
Note
Build an earthen ridge between the pond and paddy growing area to prevent pesticide from getting into the pond water.
<section>Cattle fish culture</section>
Two for one
A one-hectare fish pond needs about 10-15 tonnes of dung and urine per year to maintain its fertility. New ponds need higher doses of dung and urine. In general, the dung and urine of two cattle are sufficient to maintain a one-hectare pond.
Caution
Your pond water should be brown. If the water suddenly turns dark green because of algal growth, stop the inflow of dung and urine until the water turns brown again. Stop the flow of dung and urine during persistent cloudy weather (2-3 days of continuous cloudiness). You do not have to stop the flow of dung and urine during rain.
Raising fish and cattle together is quite profitable. Although wastes from cattle are not as rich as wastes from poultry and pigs, cattle farmers can still use cattle dung and urine to maintain a fish pond.
Cattle waste as pond fertilizer If you own cattle, construct a shed close to your pond. The shed should have a bricklined floor with good drainage toward the
Dung and urine slurry
As a better alternative, mix dung and urine thoroughly, dilute with water and, using a bucket, evenly broadcast the mixture into your fish pond. Dung in the form of biogas slurry is even better. Apply 80-120 kg of fresh slurry per hectare of pond each day. (See Biogas as a rural energy source.)
Production
About 2,500-3,000 kg of fish can be produced from one hectare of pond each year. The cattle provide milk and labour. Buffaloes can also be raised instead of cattle.
<section>Duck - fish culture</section>
Benefits of ducks
- Ducks contribute to high fish production while producing valuable eggs and meat.
- Ducks loosen the pond bottom, releasing nutrients which increase pond productivity.
- No additional land is required to raise ducks.
- Ducks get 50 to 75 percent of their feed from the pond in the form of aquatic weeds, insects, and molluscs.
- Ducks spread their droppings over the whole pond. This reduces the labour associated with pond manuring.
Ducks and fish make a great combination. Just build a simple duck shelter next to the fish pond and reap the results. Your fish will grow large on duck manure, spilled duck feed, and microscopic animals and plants made plentiful by the presence of the ducks. You will harvest fish, duck eggs, and meat while saving on pond fertilizers and supplementary fish feed.
Pond management
- Six- to eight-week-old ducklings should be stocked on the pond.
- Vaccinate them prior to stocking.
- The ducks are likely to prey on small fingerlings. To avoid this, stock the pond with fingerlings more than 10 cm in length.
Selection of ducks
Indian runner, styles, mete, and megaswari are suitable breeds.
Construction of duck house
- Construct a house on the pond embankment to shelter the ducks at night and during egg laying.
- Allow the ducks free access to the pond during the day. It is not necessary to build a fence around the pond.
- Provide about 0.3 0. 5 sq m of floor space per bird.
Duck droppings as manure
- Droppings should be collected from the duck house at night and applied to the pond every morning.
- 200-300 ducks are sufficient to manure a 1 ha fish pond.
Feed supplements for ducks.
Supplementary food at the rate of 100 g per bird per day can come from household wastes such as kitchen leftovers, rice bran, and broken rice. Put this feed inside the duck house. Do not give ducks spoiled food.
Fish, eggs, and meat
Ducks start layers eggs at the age of 24 weeks and continue to lay until the age of two years. After this, sell them.
About 3,000 kg of fish, 12,000 eggs, and 500 kg of duck meat can be produced per hectare of pond each year.
<section>Pig - fish culture</section>
Productive combination
A pig attains slaughter size after 5-6 months. Fish culture is normally done for 10-12 months. Therefore, two lots of piglets can be raised along with one harvest of fish.
A total of 4,200 kg of pig meat and 5,000-6,000 kg of fish per hectare of pond can be produced each year. Pigs are fed grasses and other green fodder and kitchen wastes at the rate of 1.5 kg per pig per day.
Pigs efficiently convert farm and kitchen refuse into manure which can be used to fertilize fish ponds. Indigenous breeds are hardy and well adapted to local conditions. Exotic breeds are more productive and gain weight faster, but require more care than indigenous breeds.
Housing
Build a pig pen with I to 1.5 sq m of floor space per animal on the pond embankment. The floor should be cemented with drainage toward the pond. About 30-40 pigs should be raised per hectare of pond area.
Selection of breeds
Quick growers and prolific exotic breeds, such as Large White, Yorkshire, Landrace, etc., are preferred. Do not allow exotic breeds outside their pen. Indigenous breeds can be allowed to forage outside, around the pond during the day. If pig rearing begins before fish stocking, it is not necessary to apply basal manure to the pond. (See Composite fish culture.)
Note
Do not allow the pig excrete into the pond if the water turns dark green.
Poultry, pigs, and fish
You can combine poultry and pig raising by housing poultry above the pig pens. The poultry droppings and spilled feed fall through a slatted floor into the pig pen. The pig droppings can be washed into the pond.
Sources: Dr. S. D. Tripathi, Dr. B.K. Sharma and Dr. Manak K. Das
<section>Horticulture on dykes</section>
Dykes cover a large area on many farms. Despite its potential for production, dyke land is most often underutilized. The following are some suggestions for making use of dykes.
Fruit trees
Dig pits (50 cm in diameter x 30 cm deep) and fill them with compost and soil. Plant papaya saplings (April-May) and banana and citrus (June-July). Water regularly. Maintain 3 banana plants in one pit. Harvest papaya after 6 months.
Creeper plants
Dig small pits (25 cm in diameter x 10-15 cm deep) and add compost. Plant gourd seeds (2-3 in each pit) in March. Build a bamboo trellis for creepers over your pond. Harvest from May onwards.
Leafy vegetables
Cultivate leafy vegetables like amaranthus, water bindweed, and Indian spinach during summer.
Winter crops
Cultivate and dress the top soil with compost. Build small mounds spaced 40-cm apart. Transplant early varieties of cabbage and cauliflower in late August or early September. Add water as needed. When plants reach 15-20 cm, apply fertilizer (Sufala, 20-25 g to each plant). Repeat 25-30 days after transplanting. Begin harvesting 65-70 days after transplanting.
Part way through harvesting the first crop, transplant cabbage and cauliflower on the intermediate harvested space. Manure and water the same as for the first crop. The second crop will be ready by February. Intercrop with spinach and tomato.
Fish culture with waste leaves
Use waste leaves of horticultural crops and banana leaves as feed for grass carp. (See related topics in this manual.)
Contributor. Dr. A. K Dutta
<section>Solar drying of fish</section>
Village used to sun-drying clothes, fruit, vegetables, or cow dung cakes, can easily learn to dry fish for home consumption and sale.
Fish are more difficult to dry than fruits and vegetables. However, with the proper technique and some practice, fish can be dried with little effort and at low cost. Dried fish usually fetch a good price in the market.
Preparation Fish can be divided into two categories:
Small fish white baits, silver bellies, small sardines, prawns, soles, etc.
Medium and large fish mackerels, jew fish, croaker fish, pomfrets, seer, catfish, tuna, shark, etc. The process for drying small fish is different from drying medium- and large-size fish. However, all sizes of fish must be fresh and odour-free. Sundrying takes two to three days for an average 8 to 10 hours a day, with a maximum temperature of 38°C. Properly dried fish should contain 12 to 15 percent moisture.
Small fish
1 Wash in clean water to remove dirt and sand.
2 Allow excess water to drain out for 30 minutes.
3 Spread washed fish on mats, split bamboo, or gunny bags, hang them from a line to dry.
4 Allow the fish to dry in the sun.
5 Occasionally, turn the fish so that both sides dry.
6 Pack the dried fish in polythene bags.
7 Put the bags in plastic or wooden containers.
8 Store dried fish in a cool, dry place.
Medium and large fish
1 Cut off the head.
2 Slit open the belly and remove the guts.
3 Wash the fish in water and remove the blood.
4 Make a mixture of common salt using 1/3 fine salt and 2/3 coarse salt.
5 Salt the fish-one part salt to four parts fish (1:4) for large fish and one Part salt large fish and one part salt to eight parts fish (1:8) for medium fish.
6 Leave the fish to absorb the salt for about on hours.
7 Sandwich the fish between slabs of cement or wooden boards piled with weights.
8 After one day, turn the fish.
9 Wash the salted fish in 3.5 percent salt solution.
10 Dry the fish by spreading them on mats.
11 Pack the dried fish in polythene bags and store them in a cool, dry place.
Contributor: Dr. D. R. Rao
<section>Appendices</section>
<section>Glossary of local terms</section>
General
Local terms
English
bidi
local cigarette, cheroot
chapaties
thin, unleavened wheat
bread
chulha
stove
chutney
paste
dal
pulse
dhania
powdered coriander
seeds
garam masala
whole spice
ghee
butter oil
godown
storage
gunny cloth
coarse cloth made from
jute
haldi
turmeric
jaggery
brown sugar
jeera powder
cumin powder
khichiri
cooked mixture
khurpi
hand glove
mahua
Bassia latifolia
masaa
mixture of spices
megaswari
name of Indian breed of duck
murrah
Indian buffalo breed
pucca
cemented floor, or any solid construction usually of manufactured materials
sutli
string
tulsi
basil
Multipurpose trees
Local terms
English name
Botanical name
anjan
Hardwickia binata
aonla
Emblica officinalis
ardu
Ailanthus excelsa
arvi
colocasia
babul
Israeli babul
Acacia tortilis
ber
Indian jujube, Chinese date
Zizyphus mauritiana
brij babul
Dichrostachys cinerea
casuarina
sea oak
Casuarina equisetifolia
desi babul
Acacia nilotica
gliricidia
gliricidia
Gliricidia septum
kathal
jack fruit
Artocarpus heterophyllus
margosa
neem
Azadiracta indica
seesam, shisham
rosewood
Dalbarpta sissoo
sejana, sainjana
drum stick, horseradish tree
Moringa oleifera
siris, desi serfs, kala siris
Albizia lebbek
shahtut
mulberry
Morus alba
subabui
leucaena
Leucaena leucocephala
vilayati babul
mesquite
Prosopis juliflora
Fruits, vegetables, and grasses
amla
Phyllanthus emblica
amrapalli
mango variety
arhar
pigeon pea
bajra
pearl millet
bakla
broadbean
berseem
Egyptian clover
Trifolium alexandrinum
bhel
Semcarpus anacardium
bhindi
lady finger
Abelmoschus esculentus
brinjel
eggplant
Solanum melongera
chana
Bengal gram
doob grass
Bermuda grass
Cynodon dactylon
guar
Cluster bean
Cyamopsis tetragronloba
Jangli pikvan
Tylophora indica
jowar
sorghum or great millet
karanj
Pongamia pinnate
khas
Vetiveria indica
knol khol
type of cabbage
kulfa
portulaca
Portulaca oleracea L.
Iobia
cowpea
Vigna sinensis
lucerne
bur clover
Medicago hispida
methi
fenugreek
mung
green gram
Phaseolus aureus
palak
spinach
poi
Indian spinach
ragi
Brassica juncea
raima
lima bean
sem
carpet legume
Dolichos lablab
Sudan grass
Sorghum sudanense
toria
Indian rape
Brassica compestrie var
tulsi
basil
urad
black gram
Phaseolus mungo
<section>Banned and not approved pesticides</section>
S. No.
Name of pesticide not approved for use(as of Feb. 28,1994)
Calcium Arsonate
EPM
Azinphos-Methyl
Lead Arsonate
Mevinphos (Phosdrin)
2, 4,5-T
Carbophenothion
Vamidothion
Mephosfolan
Azinphos Ethyl
Binapacryl
Dicrotophos
Thiodemeton/Disulfoton
Fentin Acetate
Fentin Hydroxide
Chinomethionate(Morestan)
Ammonium Sulphamate
Leptophos (Phosvel)
S. No.
Name of pesticide banned for use (as of Feb. 28, 1994)
Dibromochloropropane (DBCP)
Endrin
Pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB)
Pentachiorophenol (PCP)
Toxaphene
Ethyl Parathion
Chlordane
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Paraquat-di-methyl Sulphate
Nitrofen
Tetradifon
PMA
Nicotine Sulphate
These pesticides are under fresh review as per the directions of the Honorable High Court of Rajasthan.
<section>Improved varieties of grasses and legumes in different regions</section>
Species
Variety
Region
Yield lover(green forage In t/ha)
Grasses
Anjan grass
IGFRI-3108
Dry parts of Maharashtra,
Cenchrus ciliaris
Rajasthan, Haryana,
Bihar and UP
IGFRI-3813
Gujarat, Rajasthan
Haryana, AP and Bihar
CAZRI-75
Extreme dry areas of Rajasthan
Marvel grass
S-32
Gujarat, UP, Haryana
Dichanthium
and Maharashtra
annulatum
S-65
Bihar
IGFRI-495-1
Gujarat, Rajastan
AP and Maharashtra
Orchard grass
S-37 & S-143
High hills of J & K
Dactylis glomerata
HP and UP. Also in eastern highlands.
Fescue grass
Delta and
High hills of J & K
Festuca arundinacea
Kentaki 31
HP and UP. Also in eastern highlands.
Doob grass
NK-37
Hill and plains of UP
Cynodon dactylon
Punjab, Haryana, MP and Bihar
Bermuda
Coastal regions of
coastal
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
Kamataka and Maharashtra
Nandi grass
Kanjguia
Eastern plains
Setaria sphacelata
Denanath grass
IGFRI-2808
Low hills of J & K, HP
Pennisetum pedicellatum
and PP-47
UP, eastern low hills and eastern plains
Bahia grass
Common
UP, Haryana, Punjab
Papsalum notatum
Wallace and Tampa
and coastal Maharashtra Tamil Nadu, Kamataka and Andhra Pradesh
Guinea grass
PGG 14
In moist places of Gujarat, 50-70
Panicum maximum
PGG 19
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
and Hamil
Kamataka, AP, Haryana,
Punjab and UP
Napier grass
Pusa giant
Whole of India
Pennisetum
NB-21
Whole of tropical
purpureum
humid part of India
IGFRI
UP, MP, NE hills
AP, Punjab and hills of
North India
Legumes
Red clover
Kenland
High hills of J 8 K,
Trifolium pretense
HP and UP
White clover
Kavulchus
High hills of J & K,
Trifolium repens
and Nordic
HP and UP
Birdsfoot trifial
Grainger
High hills of J & K,
Lotus corniculatus highlands
HP, UP and eastern
Carribean stylo
Perennial
southern plateau and
Stylosanthes hamata
dry regions of
Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Haryana and HP
Stylo
Shefield,
Eastern low hills and
Stylosanthes guianensis
Cook and Invader
coastal regions
<section>Improved varieties of vegetables for nutrition garden</section>
Vegetable
Improved varieties
Asparagus
Perfection and other exotic varieties
Beetroot
Pusa Dark Red, Crimson Globe
Bitter gourd
Pusa Do Mausami, Pusa Vishesh, Coimbatore Long, Arka Harit
Bottle gourd
Pusa Naveen, Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Pusa Hybrid No. 1
Brinjal
Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Kranti, Pusa Purple Cluster, Punjab Bahar
Broccoli
Futura, Premium Crop, Topper, Sparten Early and other exotic vegetables
Brussels sprouts
Hilid's Ideal and other exotic varieties
Cabbage
Golden Acre, Pusa Mukta, Pusa Drumbead, Pride of India, August, September
Capsicum
California Wonder, Yolo Wonder
Carrot
Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali, Nantes, Pusa Yamdagi
Cauliflower
Pusa Deepali, Improved Japanese, D 96, Dania, Pusa Snowball 1, Snowball 16
Celery
Clean cut, Golden Self blending, Ford flock and other exotic varieties
Chilli
Pusa Jwala, Pusa Sadabahar, N.P.
Chinese cabbage
Crispy Choy, Pea Choy, Wongbok and other exotic varieties
Clusterbean
Pusa Sadabahar, Pusa Navbahar
Coriander
Local varieties
Cowpea
Pusa Do Fasli, Pusa Komal, Pusa Phalguni
Cucumber
Poinsette, Japanese Long Green, Pusa Sanyog, Poona Khira
French bean
Contender, Pusa Parvati, Kentucky Wonder
Garden bean
Pusa Early Prolific, Rajani, Lal Sem
Garlic
Local varieties
Kale
Exotic varieties
Knol-kohl
White Vienna, Purple Vienna
Leek
Broad London, Large American Flag, Elephant and other exotic varieties
Luffa
Pusa Chikni, Pusa Basdar, Satputia, Cal
Mint
Local varieties
Onion
Pusa Red, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa White Flat, Pusa Madhvi
Okra
Pusa Sawani, Parbhani Kranti, Punjab Padmi ni, Vaishali Vadu
Palak
Pusa Jyoti, All Green
Parsley
Moss curled, Hamburg, Curled leaf and other exotic varieties
Potato
Kufri Chandermukhi, Kufri Chamatkar, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Sheetman, Kufri
Kissan, Kufri Sinduri
Pumpkin
Pusa Vishwas, Solan Badami, Arka Chandan, Pusa Hybrid No. 1
Radish
Pusa Desi, Pusa Reshmi, Japanese White, Pusa Himani, Pusa Chetaki, White
Icicle, Rapid Red-White Tipped
Round melon (Tinda)
Punjab Tinda, Local varieties
Spinach
Virginia Savoy
Summer squash
Australian Green, Pusa Alankar
Tomato
Pusan 120, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Gaurav, Pusa Sheetal, Pusa Early Dwarf
Turnip
Pusa Sweti, Pusa Chandrima, Purple Top White Globe, Snow-ball, Golder ball,
Pusa swami ma
Watermelon
Sugar Baby, Ashai Yamato, New Hampshire, Midget, Improved Shipper
<section>Workshop participants</section>
Mr. David Abbass
Media Materials Specialist
Communication Division
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
Silang, Cavite 4118, Philippines
Tel/Fax (63-96) 402 0891
Dr. (Mrs.) Rekha Bhagat
Senior Scientist
Division of Agriculture Extension
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5781434
Dr. B.N. Chaudhary
Assistant Director General
(Lab to Land Programme)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan
Pusa, New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5719881
Mrs. Neelam Chhabra
Assistant Editor (English)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5721004
Dr. R.S. Chillar
Senior Scientist
Dairy Section
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5737852
Dr. P. Das
Deputy Director General (Extension)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Room No. 117, Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5731277
Dr. W.R. Deshpande
Sector A, 84-B, Sainath Colony
Indore 452001, Madhya Pradesh
Tel. (0731) 493174
Dr. K.S. Deswal
Training Associate
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Shikohpur
Distt. Gurgaon
Haryana
Dr. A.K. Dutta
Principal Scientist
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture
Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneshwar-751002
Orissa
Tel. (0674) 463421
Mr. S.K. Jagwani
Senior Scientific Officer I
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Block No. 14, CGO Complex
2nd. Floor, Room No. 018
Lodi Road, New Delhi- 110003
Tel. (011)4362891
Dr. M.Y. Kamal
Assistant Director General (Inland Fisheries)
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi-110001
Tel. (011) 384774
Dr. M.Y. Khan
Head, Division of Animal Nutrition
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar, Bareilly-243122
Tel. (0581) 384774
Mr. Ravi Maithel
Principal Programme Officer
Research in Innovation Systems
International Development Research Centre
South Asia Pacific Office
17, JorBag, New Delhi- 110003
Tel. (011)461.9411
Dr. L.M.L. Mathur
Principal Scientist
Directorate of Maize, Cummings Laboratory
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5782372
Dr. P.N. Mathur
Coordinator, International Federation for
Women in Agriculture
Joint Director (Extension)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5781905, 5789102 (office)
Dr. Paul Mundy
Director, Communication Division
International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
Silang, Cavite 4118, Philippines
Tel./Fax (63-96) 402 0891
Dr. C. Prasad
Secretary General
International Federation for
Women in Agriculture
Pocket EB No. 106
G-8 Area, Maya Enclave
Rajouri Garden
New Delhi- 110064
Tel. (011) 5402983
Dr. A.K. Raheja
Assistant Director General
Plant Protection
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi-110001
Tel. (011) 3382257
Dr. N.K. Roy
Professor Emeritus
Division of Agricultural Chemicals
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5787390, 5783272
Dr. S.K. Roy
Department of Fruits and
Horticulture Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5788428
Dr. N.K. Sanghi
Director
MANAGE, Rajendranagar
Hyderabad-500030
Dr. (Mrs.) H.K. Sawhney
Senior Lecturer
Department of Community Resource
Management and Extension
Lady Irwin College
Sikandra Road, New Delhi-110001
Tel. (011) 6836878, 6836673
Dr. (Mrs.) Mridula Seth
Senior Lecturer
Department of Community Resource
Management and Extension
Lady Irwin College
Sikandra Road, New Delhi- 110001
Tel. (011) 6836878, 6836673
Dr. (Mrs.) Vijay Sethi
Senior Scientist
Department of Horticulture
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5785214
Dr. D.D. Sharma
Animal Nutritionist
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal- 132001, Haryana
Tel. (0184) 22800
Dr. S.P. Sharma
Head, Division of Seed Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5781701, 5783234
Dr. G.P. Singh
Animal Nutritionist
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal- 132001, Haryana
Tel. (0184) 22800
Dr. Gyanendra Singh
Assistant Director General
(Agriculture Engineering)
Krishi Bhawan
New Delhi- 110001
Tel. (011) 3386395
Dr. Jagdish Singh
330 Hospital Road langpura, New Delhi- 110014
Tel. (011) 4324162
Dr. Kartar Singh
Senior Scientist
Unit of Transfer of Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. Panjab Singh
Joint Director (Research)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5781492
Dr. R.P. Singh
Principal Scientist
Division of Entomology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Tel. (011) 5781482
Dr. P.S. Sirohi
Senior Scientist
Unit of Vegetable Research and Demonstration
Division of Horticulture
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-10012
Tel. (011) 5733834
Dr. (Mrs.) Chitra Srivastava
Scientist
Division of Entomology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Tel. (011) 5781482
Dr. (Mrs.) Ratna Tiwari
Senior Scientist
Central Institute of Fisheries Education
Jaiprakash Road, Seven Bungalows
Versova, Bombay-400061
Tel. (022) 6261632, 6261573, 6263404
Dr. S.D. Tripathi
Director
Central Institute of Fisheries Education
Jaiprakash Road, Seven Bungalows
Versova, Bombay-400061
Tel. (022) 6261632, 6261573, 6263404
<section>Authors/contributors</section>
Dr. V.M. Bhan
Director, National Research Centre for Weed
Science Indian Council of Agricultural Research
215 Ravindra Nagar, Adhartal
Jabalpur482004 Madhya Pradesh
Mrs. Ritu Chakravarty
Scientist, Division of Dairy Extension
National Dairy Research
]Institute Karnal-132001,
Haryana
Dr. Ram Chand
Head,
Division of Dairy Extension
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal-132001, Haryana
Dr. R.S. Chillar
Senior Scientist,
Dairy Section Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Dr. (Mrs.) Malvika Dadlani
Scientist, Division of Seed Science and Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Dr. W.R. Deshpande
Ex. Jt. Director Extension,
UNKVV Sector A, 84-B
Sainath Colony, Indore-452001
Madhya Pradesh
Dr. A. K. Dutta
Scientist Central Institute of Freshwater
Aquaculture Kausalyaganga,
Bhubaneshwar751002 Orissa
Ms. Nitya Ghotge
For Animals: Training, Health and Research
(ANTHRA) A-21 Sainikpuri,
Secunderabad-500594
Andhra Pradesh
Mr. S.K. Jagwani
Senior Scientific
Officer I Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources Block 14, 2nd. Floor,
Room 018 CGO Complex,
Lodi Road New Delhi-110003
Dr. M.Y. Khan
Head, Division of Animal Nutrition
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
Izatnagar, Bareilly-243122
Dr. A.C. Mathur
BAIF
C-35 Hauz Khas
New Delhi-110016
Dr. L.M.L. Mathur
Principal Scientist
Directorate of Maize, Cummings Laboratory
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Mr. B.S. Mitra
Scientist
Division of Dairy Extension
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal- 132001, Haryana
Dr. Sunit Mukherjee
Professor
Department of Food Technology and
Biochemical Engineering
Jadavpur University, Calcutta
Ms. Sagari R. Ramdas
For Animals: Training, Health and Research
(ANTHRA)
A-21 Sainikpuri, Secunderabad-500594
Andhra Pradesh
Dr. D. R. Rao
Principal Scientist
Central Institute of Fisheries Education
Jai Prakash Road, Seven Bungalows
Varsova, Bombay-400061
Dr. N.K. Roy
Professor Emeritus
Division of Agricultural Chemicals
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. S.K. Roy
Principal Scientist
Department of Fruits and Horticulture
Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. (Mrs.) Vijay Sethi
Senior Scientist
Department of Horticulture
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi-110012
Mrs. Parvinder Sharma
Scientist
Division of Dairy Extension
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal- 132001, Haryana
Dr. S.P. Sharma
Head, Division of Seed Technology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. V.P. Sharma
Director
Malaria Research Centre
22 Sham Nath Marg
New Delhi- 110054
Dr. G.P. Singh
Senior Scientist
Dairy Cattle Nutrition Division
National Dairy Research Institute
Karnal- 132001, Haryana
Dr. Jagdish Singh
330 Hospital Road Jangpura
New Delhi- 110014
Dr. Panjab Singh
Joint Director (Research)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. P.S. Sirohi
Principal Scientist
Unit of Vegetable Research and Demonstration
Division of Horticulture
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Chitra Srivastava
Scientist
Division of Entomology
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi- 110012
Dr. S.K. Verma
Scientist
Haryana Agricultural University
Hissar- 125004
<section>List of resource institutions</section>
CAPART
D-56 Pankha Road
Janak Puri, New Delhi-110058
Central Food Technology
Research Institute
(CFTRI)
Mysore, Karnataka
Centre for Rural Development and
Appropriate Technology
(CRDAT)
I.I.T., Hauz Khas
New Delhi- 110016
Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering
(ICAR)
(CIAE)
Bhopal-462003
Central Institute of Fisheries Education
(CIFE)
Jai Prakash Road
Seven Bungalows, Versova
Bombay-400061, Maharashtra
Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture
(CIFA)
Kauslayaganga, Bhubaneshwar-751002
Orissa
Consortium of Rural Technologies
D-320 Lakshmi Nagar
New Delhi-110092
Department of Non-Conventlonal
Energy Sources
(DNES)
Block No. 14, CGO Complex
Lodi Road, New Delhi- 110003
For Animals: Training, Health and Research
(VENTURA)
A-21 Sainikpuri, Secunderabad-500594
Andhra Pradesh
Gloria Land
Sri Aurobindo Ashram
Pondicherry-605003
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
(IARI)
Pusa, New Delhi-110012
Indian Grain Storage Institute
Hapur-245101, Uttar Pradesh
Indian Grassland and Fodder
Research Institute
(IGFRI)
Jhansi-284003, Uttar Pradesh
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
(IIHR)
Bangalore-560089, Karnataka
Indian Organic Agriculture Movement
Shreesh Chamber, First Floor 25/1
Yeshwant Niwas Road, Indore-452003
Madhya Pradesh
Indian Veterinary Research Institute
(IVRI)
Izatnagar-243122, Uttar Pradesh
National Dairy Research Institute
(NDRI)
Karnal-132001, Haryana
<section>References</section>
Livestock diseases
IIRR. Ethnoveterinary medicine in Asia: An information kit on traditional animal health care practices. 4 vols. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. (2) pp. 58-66.
Bamboo iceless refrigerator
Y.K. Sharma (ed.). 1991. Bamboo Iceless Fridge. In Appropriate Rural Technologies. Consortium of Rural Technologies, D-320, Laksmi Nagar, New Delhi.
Organic farming
Sheshadri, C. V. and Chitra Gandhi Mani. Organic Farming, Experiences and Beginner Guide. Monograph Series on the Engineering of Photosynthetic Systems. Vol. 34. Shri ARM Murugappam Chettiar Research Centre, Photosynthesis Division, Madras. pp. 1-2.
Shrove, V.N. et al (eds). 1994. Organic Farming- Selected Lectures. National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Area (NWDPRA) from lecture series at College of Agriculture, Indore, India. pp. 1-4.
Bio-inoculants
Deshpande, W. R. Bioinoculants. 1995. Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
Storage of grain and seed
Alam A. and K.S. Belkhon. 1990. Post Harvest Technologies for Farm Women. Women in Agriculture-Technological Perspective. IFWA, New Delhi. pp. 250-285.
Integrated pest management
Hill, Dennis H. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and their Control. pp. 38-58.
Shroff, V. N. et al (eds). Organic Farming, Selected Lectures. Organized by Government of India, Government of Madhya Pradesh, and Jawahar Lal Nehru Agricultural University, Jabalpur, at College of Indore.
Neem for plant protection
Singh, R. P. Neem in Plant Protection. Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
Hazards of pesticides
Rengam, Sarojini and Karen Snyder (eds.) Pesticide Handbook: Profiles for Action.
Pesticide facts and fiction
Sawhney, H.K. and Aarti Gombar. 44 Questions and Answers. Pesticides and You (reprint and supplement). International Organisation of Consumer Unions - Regional Office for Asia and Pacific (IOCU-ROAP), and Pesticide Action Network Asia Pacific (PAN-AP).
First-aid measures for pesticide poisoning
Maramba, Nelia C. (University of the Philippines, College of Medicine) from paper on First Aid Measures for Pesticide Poisoning presented at the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines, July4, 1990.
Drudgery-reducing Implements for farm women
Biswas, H. S. (ed.). Weeding Tools and Implements of India. December 1980. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE). Bhopal, India.
Pandey, M. M. (ed.) Harvesting Tools of India. May 1981. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE). Bhopal, India.
Science and Technology for Women Compendium of Technologies. Centre for Villages, Wardha.
Solar cookers
Tripathi, A.K. Paper on Solar. Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources, CGO Complex, New Delhi.
Sate drinking water
National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India. 1990. From booklet People, Water and Sanitation - What They Know, Believe and Do in Rural Areas.
Maintenance of community water sources Management of water for the household Some simple ways to purify drinking water
Bedi, Yash Pal. A Handbook of Social and Preventive Medicine. pp. 6-15.
Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. January 1985. Folder on Safe Water and Clean Surroundings. Allied Publishers, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India. 1990. From booklet People, Water and Sanitation - What They Know, Believe and Do in Rural Areas.
Use of Indigenous plants for cleaning water
Consortium of Rural Technologies (CORT). From booklet Traditional Water Purifying Plants. CORT, D-320, Laksmi Nagar, New Delhi-1 10092.
Soakage pit for proper disposal of waste water
Kamalamma, N. (Gandhigram Rural Institute, Gandhigram, Tamil Nadu). 1991. Soakage Pit (published under the scheme: Science and Technology for Women) Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.
Efficient use of irrigation water
Sheshadri, C. V. and Chitra Gandhi Mani. Organic Farming, Experiences and Beginner Guide. Monograph Series on the Engineering of Photosynthetic Systems. Vol. 34. Shri AMM Murugappam Chettiar Research Centre, Photosynthesis Division, Madras. pp. 1-2.
The Double Walled Pot "Jaltriph" from Rural Technology Manual on Selected Technologies - 1. Information Service Division, CDRT, IERT, Allahabad.
Composite fish culture
Pamphlets on Composite Fish Culture. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE) and Deemed University, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Verosa, Bombay40006 1.
Sinha, V.R.P., B.K. Sharma and Nirmal K. Thakur. Fish Culture. Booklet published by Krishi Magyar Kendra and Trainers Training Centre CIFRI (ICAR), Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar.
Paddy-fish culture
Das, Manak K. Paper on Integrated Fish Farming with Poultry, Duckery and Livestock - Technologies for Inland Fisheries Development. Central Institute of Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal-743 101.
Ghosh, Apurba. Paper on Rice cum Fish Culture and its Economic Feasibility. Technologies for Inland Fisheries Development. Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal743101.
Tripathi, SD. and B.K. Sharma. Integrated Fish Pig Farming (1, 000 sq m unit, India). 1992. From manuscript prepared for IIRR and ICLARM. 1992. Farmer-proven Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture: A Technology Information Kit. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Manila, Philippines. 1992.
Cattle-fish culture
Dube, Kiran. Paper on Cattle Poultry Fish
Culture. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Bombay.
Poultry-fish culture
Das, Manak K. Paper on Integrated Fish
Farming with Poultry, Duckery and Livestock - Technologies for Inland Fisheries
Development. Central Institute of Inland
Capture Fisheries Research Institute,
Barrackpore, West Bengal-743101.
Dube, Kiran. Paper on Cattle Poultry fish
Culture. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Bombay.
Duck-fish culture
Dube, Kiran. Paper on Cattle Poultry fish
Culture. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), Bombay.
Tripathi, S.D. and B.K. Sharma. 1992. From manuscript prepared for IIRR and ICLARM 1992. Farmer-proven Integrated Agriculture-Aquaculture: A Technology Information Kit. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Manila, Philippines. 1992.
